Graphene foam-protected anode active materials for lithium batteries

ABSTRACT

A lithium-ion battery anode layer, comprising an anode active material embedded in pores of a solid graphene foam composed of multiple pores and pore walls, wherein (a) the pore walls contain a pristine graphene material having essentially no (less than 0.01%) non-carbon elements or a non-pristine graphene material having 0.01% to 5% by weight of non-carbon elements; (b) the anode active material is in an amount from 0.5% to 95% by weight based on the total weight of the graphene foam and the anode active material combined, and (c) some of the multiple pores are lodged with particles of the anode active material and other pores are particle-free, and the graphene foam is sufficiently elastic to accommodate volume expansion and shrinkage of the particles of the anode active material during a battery charge-discharge cycle to avoid expansion of the anode layer. Preferably, the solid graphene foam has a density from 0.01 to 1.7 g/cm 3 , a specific surface area from 50 to 2,000 m 2 /g, a thermal conductivity of at least 100 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, and/or an electrical conductivity no less than 1,000 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to the field of rechargeable lithium battery and, more particularly, to the anode layer containing a new group of graphene foam-protected anode active materials and the process for producing same.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The discussion of prior art information is herein divided into three parts in this Background section: (a) a discussion on high-capacity anode active materials for lithium-ion batteries and long-standing issues associated with these materials; (b) the new 2-D nano material called “graphene” and its prior use as a conductive substrate material for the anode active material; and (c) graphene-based foamed material called “graphene foam”.

A unit cell or building block of a lithium-ion battery is typically composed of an anode active material layer, an anode or negative electrode layer (containing an anode active material responsible for storing lithium therein, a conductive additive, and a resin binder), an electrolyte and porous separator, a cathode or positive electrode layer (containing a cathode active material responsible for storing lithium therein, a conductive additive, and a resin binder), and a separate cathode current collector. The electrolyte is in ionic contact with both the anode active material and the cathode active material. A porous separator is not required if the electrolyte is a solid-state electrolyte.

The binder in the binder layer is used to bond the anode active material (e.g. graphite or Si particles) and a conductive filler (e.g. carbon black or carbon nanotube) together to form an anode layer of structural integrity, and to bond the anode layer to a separate anode current collector, which acts to collect electrons from the anode active material when the battery is discharged. In other words, in the negative electrode side of the battery, there are typically four different materials involved: an anode active material, a conductive additive, a resin binder (e.g. polyvinylidine fluoride, PVDF, or styrene-butadiene rubber, SBR), and an anode current collector (typically a sheet of Cu foil).

The most commonly used anode active materials for lithium-ion batteries are natural graphite and synthetic graphite (or artificial graphite) that can be intercalated with lithium and the resulting graphite intercalation compound (GIC) may be expressed as Li_(x)C₆, where x is typically less than 1. The maximum amount of lithium that can be reversibly intercalated into the interstices between graphene planes of a perfect graphite crystal corresponds to x=1, defining a theoretical specific capacity of 372 mAh/g.

Graphite or carbon anodes can have a long cycle life due to the presence of a protective solid-electrolyte interface layer (SEI), which results from the reaction between lithium and the electrolyte (or between lithium and the anode surface/edge atoms or functional groups) during the first several charge-discharge cycles. The lithium in this reaction comes from some of the lithium ions originally intended for the charge transfer purpose. As the SEI is formed, the lithium ions become part of the inert SEI layer and become irreversible, i.e. these positive ions can no longer be shuttled back and forth between the anode and the cathode during charges/discharges. Therefore, it is desirable to use a minimum amount of lithium for the formation of an effective SEI layer. In addition to SEI formation, the irreversible capacity loss Q_(ir) can also be attributed to graphite exfoliation caused by electrolyte/solvent co-intercalation and other side reactions.

In addition to carbon- or graphite-based anode materials, other inorganic materials that have been evaluated for potential anode applications include metal oxides, metal nitrides, metal sulfides, and the like, and a range of metals, metal alloys, and intermetallic compounds that can accommodate lithium atoms/ions or react with lithium. Among these materials, lithium alloys having a composition formula of Li_(a)A (A is a metal or semiconductor element, such as Al and Si, and “a” satisfies 0<a≦5) are of great interest due to their high theoretical capacity, e.g., Li₄Si (3,829 mAh/g), Li_(4.4)Si (4,200 mAh/g), Li_(4.4)Ge (1,623 mAh/g), Li_(4.4)Sn (993 mAh/g), Li₃Cd (715 mAh/g), Li₃Sb (660 mAh/g), Li_(4.4)Pb (569 mAh/g), LiZn (410 mAh/g), and Li₃Bi (385 mAh/g). However, as schematically illustrated in FIG. 1(A), in an anode composed of these high-capacity materials, severe pulverization (fragmentation of the alloy particles) occurs during the charge and discharge cycles due to severe expansion and contraction of the anode active material particles induced by the insertion and extraction of the lithium ions in and out of these particles. The expansion and contraction, and the resulting pulverization, of active material particles, lead to loss of contacts between active material particles and conductive additives and loss of contacts between the anode active material and its current collector. This degradation phenomenon is illustrated in FIG. 1. These adverse effects result in a significantly shortened charge-discharge cycle life.

To overcome the problems associated with such mechanical degradation, three technical approaches have been proposed:

-   (1) reducing the size of the active material particle, presumably     for the purpose of reducing the total strain energy that can be     stored in a particle, which is a driving force for crack formation     in the particle. However, a reduced particle size implies a higher     surface area available for potentially reacting with the liquid     electrolyte to form a higher amount of SEI. Such a reaction is     undesirable since it is a source of irreversible capacity loss. -   (2) depositing the electrode active material in a thin film form     directly onto a current collector, such as a copper foil. However,     such a thin film structure with an extremely small     thickness-direction dimension (typically much smaller than 500 nm,     often necessarily thinner than 100 nm) implies that only a small     amount of active material can be incorporated in an electrode (given     the same electrode or current collector surface area), providing a     low total lithium storage capacity and low lithium storage capacity     per unit electrode surface area (even though the capacity per unit     mass can be large). Such a thin film must have a thickness less than     100 nm to be more resistant to cycling-induced cracking, further     diminishing the total lithium storage capacity and the lithium     storage capacity per unit electrode surface area. Such a thin-film     battery has very limited scope of application. A desirable and     typical electrode thickness is from 100 μm to 200 μm. These     thin-film electrodes (with a thickness of <500 nm or even <100 nm)     fall short of the required thickness by three (3) orders of     magnitude, not just by a factor of 3. -   (3) using a composite composed of small electrode active particles     protected by (dispersed in or encapsulated by) a less active or     non-active matrix, e.g., carbon-coated Si particles, sol gel     graphite-protected Si, metal oxide-coated Si or Sn, and     monomer-coated Sn nano particles. Presumably, the protective matrix     provides a cushioning effect for particle expansion or shrinkage,     and prevents the electrolyte from contacting and reacting with the     electrode active material. Examples of anode active particles are     Si, Sn, and SnO₂. Unfortunately, when an active material particle,     such as Si particle, expands (e.g. up to a volume expansion >300%)     during the battery charge step, the protective coating is easily     broken due to the mechanical weakness and/o brittleness of the     protective coating materials. There has been no high-strength and     high-toughness material available that is itself also lithium ion     conductive.

It may be further noted that the coating or matrix materials used to protect active particles (such as Si and Sn) are carbon, sol gel graphite, metal oxide, monomer, ceramic, and lithium oxide. These protective materials are all very brittle, weak (of low strength), and/or non-conducting (e.g., ceramic or oxide coating). Ideally, the protective material should meet the following requirements: (a) The coating or matrix material should be of high strength and stiffness so that it can help to refrain the electrode active material particles, when lithiated, from expanding to an excessive extent. (b) The protective material should also have high fracture toughness or high resistance to crack formation to avoid disintegration during repeated cycling. (c) The protective material must be inert (inactive) with respect to the electrolyte, but be a good lithium ion conductor. (d) The protective material must not provide any significant amount of defect sites that irreversibly trap lithium ions. (e) The protective material must be lithium ion-conducting as well as electron-conducting. The prior art protective materials all fall short of these requirements. Hence, it was not surprising to observe that the resulting anode typically shows a reversible specific capacity much lower than expected. In many cases, the first-cycle efficiency is extremely low (mostly lower than 80% and some even lower than 60%). Furthermore, in most cases, the electrode was not capable of operating for a large number of cycles. Additionally, most of these electrodes are not high-rate capable, exhibiting unacceptably low capacity at a high discharge rate.

Due to these and other reasons, most of prior art composite electrodes have deficiencies in some ways, e.g., in most cases, less than satisfactory reversible capacity, poor cycling stability, high irreversible capacity, ineffectiveness in reducing the internal stress or strain during the lithium ion insertion and extraction steps, and other undesirable side effects.

Complex composite particles of particular interest are a mixture of separate Si and graphite particles dispersed in a carbon matrix; e.g. those prepared by Mao, et al. [“Carbon-coated Silicon Particle Powder as the Anode Material for Lithium Batteries and the Method of Making the Same,” US 2005/0136330 (Jun. 23, 2005)]. Also of interest are carbon matrix-containing complex nano Si (protected by oxide) and graphite particles dispersed therein, and carbon-coated Si particles distributed on a surface of graphite particles Again, these complex composite particles led to a low specific capacity or for up to a small number of cycles only. It appears that carbon by itself is relatively weak and brittle and the presence of micron-sized graphite particles does not improve the mechanical integrity of carbon since graphite particles are themselves relatively weak. Graphite was used in these cases presumably for the purpose of improving the electrical conductivity of the anode material. Furthermore, polymeric carbon, amorphous carbon, or pre-graphitic carbon may have too many lithium-trapping sites that irreversibly capture lithium during the first few cycles, resulting in excessive irreversibility.

In summary, the prior art has not demonstrated a composite material that has all or most of the properties desired for use as an anode material in a lithium-ion battery. Thus, there is an urgent and continuing need for a new anode for the lithium-ion battery that has a high cycle life, high reversible capacity, low irreversible capacity, small particle sizes (for high-rate capacity), and compatibility with commonly used electrolytes. There is also a need for a method of readily or easily producing such a material in large quantities.

Bulk natural graphite is a 3-D graphitic material with each graphite particle being composed of multiple grains (a grain being a graphite single crystal or crystallite) with grain boundaries (amorphous or defect zones) demarcating neighboring graphite single crystals. Each grain is composed of multiple graphene planes that are oriented parallel to one another. A graphene plane in a graphite crystallite is composed of carbon atoms occupying a two-dimensional, hexagonal lattice. In a given grain or single crystal, the graphene planes are stacked and bonded via van der Waal forces in the crystallographic c-direction (perpendicular to the graphene plane or basal plane). Although all the graphene planes in one grain are parallel to one another, typically the graphene planes in one grain and the graphene planes in an adjacent grain are inclined at different orientations. In other words, the orientations of the various grains in a graphite particle typically differ from one grain to another.

The constituent graphene planes of a graphite crystallite in a natural or artificial graphite particle can be exfoliated and extracted or isolated to obtain individual graphene sheets of carbon atoms provided the inter-planar van der Waals forces can be overcome. An isolated, individual graphene sheet of carbon atoms is commonly referred to as single-layer graphene. A stack of multiple graphene planes bonded through van der Waals forces in the thickness direction with an inter-graphene plane spacing of approximately 0.3354 nm is commonly referred to as a multi-layer graphene. A multi-layer graphene platelet has up to 300 layers of graphene planes (<100 nm in thickness), but more typically up to 30 graphene planes (<10 nm in thickness), even more typically up to 20 graphene planes (<7 nm in thickness), and most typically up to 10 graphene planes (commonly referred to as few-layer graphene in scientific community). Single-layer graphene and multi-layer graphene sheets are collectively called “nano graphene platelets” (NGPs). Graphene or graphene oxide sheets/platelets (collectively, NGPs) are a new class of carbon nano material (a 2-D nano carbon) that is distinct from the 0-D fullerene, the 1-D CNT, and the 3-D graphite.

Our research group pioneered the development of graphene materials and related production processes as early as 2002: (1) B. Z. Jang and W. C. Huang, “Nano-scaled Graphene Plates,” U.S. Pat. No. 7,071,258 (Jul. 4, 2006), application submitted on Oct. 21, 2002; (2) B. Z. Jang, et al. “Process for Producing Nano-scaled Graphene Plates,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/858,814 (Jun. 3, 2004); and (3) B. Z. Jang, A. Zhamu, and J. Guo, “Process for Producing Nano-scaled Platelets and Nanocomposites,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/509,424 (Aug. 25, 2006).

In one process, graphene materials are obtained by intercalating natural graphite particles with a strong acid and/or an oxidizing agent to obtain a graphite intercalation compound (GIC) or graphite oxide (GO), as illustrated in FIG. 2(A) (process flow chart) and FIG. 2(B) (schematic drawing). The presence of chemical species or functional groups in the interstitial spaces between graphene planes serves to increase the inter-graphene spacing (d₀₀₂, as determined by X-ray diffraction), thereby significantly reducing the van der Waals forces that otherwise hold graphene planes together along the c-axis direction. The GIC or GO is most often produced by immersing natural graphite powder (20 in FIG. 1(A) and 100 in FIG. 1(B)) in a mixture of sulfuric acid, nitric acid (an oxidizing agent), and another oxidizing agent (e.g. potassium permanganate or sodium perchlorate). The resulting GIC (22 or 102) is actually some type of graphite oxide (GO) particles if an oxidizing agent is present during the intercalation procedure. This GIC or GO is then repeatedly washed and rinsed in water to remove excess acids, resulting in a graphite oxide suspension or dispersion, which contains discrete and visually discernible graphite oxide particles dispersed in water. In order to produce graphene materials, one can follow one of the two processing routes after this rinsing step, briefly described below:

Route 1 involves removing water from the suspension to obtain “expandable graphite,” which is essentially a mass of dried GIC or dried graphite oxide particles. Upon exposure of expandable graphite to a temperature in the range of typically 800-1,050° C. for approximately 30 seconds to 2 minutes, the GIC undergoes a rapid volume expansion by a factor of 30-300 to form “graphite worms” (24 or 104), which are each a collection of exfoliated, but largely un-separated graphite flakes that remain interconnected. A SEM image of graphite worms is presented in FIG. 2.

In Route 1A, these graphite worms (exfoliated graphite or “networks of interconnected/non-separated graphite flakes”) can be re-compressed to obtain flexible graphite sheets or foils (26 or 106) that typically have a thickness in the range of 0.1 mm (100 μm)-0.5 mm (500 μm). Alternatively, one may choose to use a low-intensity air mill or shearing machine to simply break up the graphite worms for the purpose of producing the so-called “expanded graphite flakes” (49 or 108) which contain mostly graphite flakes or platelets thicker than 100 nm (hence, not a nano material by definition).

In Route 1B, the exfoliated graphite is subjected to high-intensity mechanical shearing (e.g. using an ultrasonicator, high-shear mixer, high-intensity air jet mill, or high-energy ball mill) to form separated single-layer and multi-layer graphene sheets (collectively called NGPs, 33 or 112), as disclosed in our U.S. application Ser. No. 10/858,814. Single-layer graphene can be as thin as 0.34 nm, while multi-layer graphene can have a thickness up to 100 nm, but more typically less than 10 nm (commonly referred to as few-layer graphene). Multiple graphene sheets or platelets may be made into a sheet of NGP paper (34) using a paper-making process.

Route 2 entails ultrasonicating the graphite oxide suspension for the purpose of separating/isolating individual graphene oxide sheets from graphite oxide particles. This is based on the notion that the inter-graphene plane separation has been increased from 0.3354 nm in natural graphite to 0.6-1.1 nm in highly oxidized graphite oxide, significantly weakening the van der Waals forces that hold neighboring planes together. Ultrasonic power can be sufficient to further separate graphene plane sheets to form separated, isolated, or discrete graphene oxide (GO) sheets. These graphene oxide sheets can then be chemically or thermally reduced to obtain “reduced graphene oxides” (RGO) typically having an oxygen content of 0.001%-10% by weight, more typically 0.01%-5% by weight, most typically and preferably less than 2% by weight.

For the purpose of defining the claims of the instant application, NGPs or graphene materials include discrete sheets/platelets of single-layer and multi-layer (typically less than 10 layers) pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide (RGO), graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, doped graphene (e.g. doped by B or N). Pristine graphene has essentially 0% oxygen. RGO typically has an oxygen content of 0.001%-5% by weight. Graphene oxide (including RGO) can have 0.001%-50% by weight of oxygen. Other than pristine graphene, all the graphene materials have 0.001%-50% by weight of non-carbon elements (e.g. O, H, N, B, F, Cl, Br, I, etc.). These materials are herein referred to as non-pristine graphene materials.

Another process for producing graphene, in a thin film form (typically <2 nm in thickness), is the catalytic chemical vapor deposition process. This catalytic CVD involves catalytic decomposition of hydrocarbon gas (e.g. C₂H₄) on Ni or Cu surface to form single-layer or few-layer graphene. With Ni or Cu being the catalyst, carbon atoms obtained via decomposition of hydrocarbon gas molecules at a temperature of 800-1,000° C. are directly deposited onto Cu foil surface or precipitated out to the surface of a Ni foil from a Ni—C solid solution state to form a sheet of single-layer or few-layer graphene (less than 5 layers). The Ni- or Cu-catalyzed CVD process does not lend itself to the deposition of more than 5 graphene planes (typically <2 nm) beyond which the underlying Ni or Cu layer can no longer provide any catalytic effect. The CVD graphene films are extremely expensive.

Our research group also pioneered the application of graphene materials for battery applications: One of our earlier applications discloses a nano-scaled graphene platelet-based composite composition for use as a lithium ion battery anode [A. Zhamu and B. Z. Jang, “Nano Graphene Platelet-Based Composite Anode Compositions for Lithium Ion Batteries,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/982,672 (Nov. 5, 2007); Now U.S. Pat. No. 7,745,047 (Jun. 29, 2010)]. This composition comprises: (a) micron- or nanometer-scaled particles or coating of an anode active material; and (b) a plurality of nano-scaled graphene platelets (NGPs), wherein a platelet comprises a graphene sheet or a stack of graphene sheets having a platelet thickness less than 100 nm and wherein the particles or coating are physically attached or chemically bonded to NGPs. Nano graphene platelets (NGPs) are individual graphene sheets (individual basal planes of carbon atoms isolated from a graphite crystal) or stacks of multiple graphene planes bonded together in the thickness direction. The NGPs have a thickness less than 100 nm and a length, width, or diameter that can be greater or less than 10 μm. The thickness is more preferably less than 10 nm and most preferably less than 1 nm.

Disclosed in another patent application of ours is a more specific composition, which is composed of a 3-D network of NGPs and/or other conductive filaments and anode active material particles that are bonded to these NGPs or filaments through a conductive binder [Jinjun Shi, Aruna Zhamu and Bor Z. Jang, “Conductive Nanocomposite-based Electrodes for Lithium Batteries,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/156,644 (Jun. 4, 2008)]. Yet another application provides a nano graphene-reinforced nanocomposite solid particle composition containing NGPs and electrode active material particles, which are both dispersed in a protective matrix (e.g. a carbon matrix) [Aruna Zhamu, Bor Z. Jang, and Jinjun Shi, “Nano Graphene Reinforced Nanocomposite for Lithium Battery Electrodes,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/315,555 (Dec. 4, 2008)].

After our discovery of graphene providing an outstanding support for anode active materials, many subsequent studies by others have confirmed the effectiveness of this approach. For instance, Wang, et al. investigated self-assembled TiO₂-graphene hybrid nanostructures for enhanced Li-ion insertion [D. Wang, et al. “Self-Assembled TiO₂-Graphene Hybrid Nanostructures for Enhanced Li-Ion Insertion.” ACS Nano, 3 (2009) 907-914]. The results indicate that, as compared with the pure TiO₂ phase, the specific capacity of the hybrid was more than doubled at high charge rates. The improved capacity at a high charge-discharge rate was attributed to increased electrode conductivity afforded by a percolated graphene network embedded into the metal oxide electrodes. However, all these earlier studies were focused solely on providing a network of electron-conducting paths for the anode active material particles and failed to address other critical issues, such as ease of anode material processing, electrode processability, electrode tap density (the ability to pack a dense mass into a given volume), stability of solid-electrolyte interface (SEI), and long-term cycling stability. For instance, the method of preparing self-assembled hybrid nanostructures is not amenable to mass production. These are all critically important issues that must be addressed in a real battery manufacturing environment.

The present invention goes beyond and above these prior art efforts of using solid graphene sheets or platelets (NGPs) to form a 3-D conductive network to support an anode active material. Specifically, the instant application makes use of a graphene foam material to protect the anode active material, by providing several other unexpected functions, in addition to forming a 3-D conducting network. Hence, a brief discussion on the production of graphene foams should be helpful to the reader.

Generally speaking, a foam (or foamed material) is composed of pores (or cells) and pore walls (the solid portion of a foam material). The pores can be interconnected to form an open-cell foam. A graphene foam is composed of pores and pore walls that contain a graphene material. There are three major methods of producing graphene foams:

The first method is the hydrothermal reduction of graphene oxide hydrogel that typically involves sealing graphene oxide (GO) aqueous suspension in a high-pressure autoclave and heating the GO suspension under a high pressure (tens or hundreds of atm) at a temperature typically in the range of 180-300° C. for an extended period of time (typically 12-36 hours). A useful reference for this method is given here: Y. Xu, et al. “Self-Assembled Graphene Hydrogel via a One-Step Hydrothermal Process,” ACS Nano 2010, 4, 4324-4330. There are several major issues associated with this method: (a) The high pressure requirement makes it an impractical method for industrial-scale production. For one thing, this process cannot be conducted on a continuous basis. (b) It is difficult, if not impossible, to exercise control over the pore size and the porosity level of the resulting porous structure. (c) There is no flexibility in terms of varying the shape and size of the resulting reduced graphene oxide (RGO) material (e.g. it cannot be made into a film shape). (d) The method involves the use of an ultra-low concentration of GO suspended in water (e.g. 2 mg/mL=2 g/L=2 kg/kL). With the removal of non-carbon elements (up to 50%), one can only produce less than 2 kg of graphene material (RGO) per 1000-liter suspension. Furthermore, it is practically impossible to operate a 1000-liter reactor that has to withstand the conditions of a high temperature and a high pressure. Clearly, this is not a scalable process for mass production of porous graphene structures.

The second method is based on a template-assisted catalytic CVD process, which involves CVD deposition of graphene on a sacrificial template (e.g. Ni foam). The graphene material conforms to the shape and dimensions of the Ni foam structure. The Ni foam is then etched away using an etching agent, leaving behind a monolith of graphene skeleton that is essentially an open-cell foam. A useful reference for this method is given here: Zongping Chen, et al., “Three-dimensional flexible and conductive interconnected graphene networks grown by chemical vapour deposition,” Nature Materials, 10 (June 2011) 424-428. There are several problems associated with such a process: (a) the catalytic CVD is intrinsically a very slow, highly energy-intensive, and expensive process; (b) the etching agent is typically a highly undesirable chemical and the resulting Ni-containing etching solution is a source of pollution. It is very difficult and expensive to recover or recycle the dissolved Ni metal from the etchant solution. (c) It is challenging to maintain the shape and dimensions of the graphene foam without damaging the cell walls when the Ni foam is being etched away. The resulting graphene foam is typically very brittle and fragile. (d) The transport of the CVD precursor gas (e.g. hydrocarbon) into the interior of a metal foam can be difficult, resulting in a non-uniform structure, since certain spots inside the sacrificial metal foam may not be accessible to the CVD precursor gas. ( ) This method does not lend itself to embedding anode active material particles therein.

The third method of producing graphene foam also makes use of a sacrificial material (e.g. colloidal polystyrene particles, PS) that is coated with graphene oxide sheets using a self-assembly approach. For instance, Choi, et al. prepared chemically modified graphene (CMG) paper in two steps: fabrication of free-standing PS/CMG films by vacuum filtration of a mixed aqueous colloidal suspension of CMG and PS (2.0 μm PS spheres), followed by removal of PS beads to generate 3D macro-pores. [B. G. Choi, et al., “3D Macroporous Graphene Frameworks for Supercapacitors with High Energy and Power Densities,” ACS Nano, 6 (2012) 4020-4028.] Choi, et al. fabricated well-ordered free-standing PS/CMG paper by filtration, which began with separately preparing a negatively charged CMG colloidal and a positively charged PS suspension. A mixture of CMG colloidal and PS suspension was dispersed in solution under controlled pH (=2), where the two compounds had the same surface charges (zeta potential values of +13±2.4 mV for CMG and +68±5.6 mV for PS). When the pH was raised to 6, CMGs (zeta potential=−29±3.7 mV) and PS spheres (zeta potential=+51±2.5 mV) were assembled due to the electrostatic interactions and hydrophobic characteristics between them, and these were subsequently integrated into PS/CMG composite paper through a filtering process. This method also has several shortcomings: (a) This method requires very tedious chemical treatments of both graphene oxide and PS particles. (b) The removal of PS by toluene also leads to weakened macro-porous structures. (c) Toluene is a highly regulated chemical and must be treated with extreme caution. (d) The pore sizes are typically excessively big (e.g. several μm), too big for many useful applications.

The above discussion clearly indicates that every prior art method or process for producing graphene foams has major deficiencies. Further, none of the earlier work makes use of graphene foam as a protective material for an anode active material of a lithium battery.

Thus, it is an object of the present invention to provide a cost-effective process for producing highly conductive, mechanically robust graphene foams in large quantities. This graphene foam also contains anode active material particles residing in the pores of this foam and being protected by this foam. This process does not involve the use of an environmentally unfriendly chemical. This process enables the flexible design and control of the porosity level and pore sizes.

It is another object of the present invention to provide a process for producing graphene foam-protected anode active material wherein the graphene foam exhibits a thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, elastic modulus, and/or compressive strength that is comparable to or greater than those of the graphite/carbon foams. The internal pores of the protective graphene foam expands and shrinks congruently with the expansion and shrinkage of the embedded anode active material particles, enabling long-term cycling stability of a lithium battery featuring a high-capacity anode active material (such as Si, Sn, SnO₂, Co₃O₄, etc.).

It is another object of the present invention to provide an anode layer that exhibits a combination of exceptional thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, and elastic modulus unmatched by any anode layer commonly used in a lithium-ion battery.

Yet another object of the present invention is to provide a graphene foam-protected anode active material wherein the graphene foam is selected from (a) a pristine graphene foam that contains essentially all carbon only and preferably have a pore size range from 2 nm to 200 nm; or (b) non-pristine graphene foams (graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, nitrogenated graphene, etc.) that contains at least 0.001% by weight (typically from 0.01% to 5% by weight and most typically from 0.01% to 2%) of non-carbon elements.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Herein reported is a process for producing a significantly improved anode layer that provides not only a robust 3-D network of electron-conducting paths and high conductivity, but also enables the anode material to be readily made into an electrode layer with a high electrode tap density, a sufficiently large electrode thickness (typically 50-300 μm to ensure a sufficient amount of output current), a large weight percentage of anode active material (with respect to the total amount of the non-active materials, such as conductive additive and binder, in an electrode and a separate current collector combined), and long-term cycling stability. Both the reversible capacity and the first-cycle efficiency are also significantly improved over those of state-of-the-art anode materials.

Briefly, the present invention provides a new anode layer composition wherein an anode active material (e.g. Si, Li, or SnO₂ particles) is naturally lodged in pores of a graphene foam that is beyond just having an adequate room to accommodate expansion of the anode active material. The presently invented graphene foam also exhibits a unique “elastic” property in that the cell walls (solid portion of the foam) can be compressed to tightly embrace anode active material particles when an anode layer is made. When individual particles expand (upon Li intercalation), the volume expansion is accommodated by local cell walls, without inducing a volume change of the entire anode layer (hence, not exerting internal pressure to the battery). During the subsequent discharge cycle, these particles shrink; yet the local cell walls shrink or snap back in a congruent manner, maintaining a good contact between cell walls and the particles (remaining capable of accepting Li⁺ ions and electrons during the next charge cycle).

The invented anode or negative electrode layer comprises an anode active material embedded in pores of a solid graphene foam composed of multiple pores and pore walls, wherein (a) the pore walls contain a pristine graphene material having essentially zero % of non-carbon elements or a non-pristine graphene material having 0.001% to 5% by weight of non-carbon elements, wherein the non-pristine graphene is selected from graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, boron-doped graphene, nitrogen-doped graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof; (b) the anode active material is in an amount from 0.5% to 99% by weight based on the total weight of the graphene foam and the anode active material combined; and (c) some pores are lodged with the particles of the anode active material and other pores are particle-free, and the graphene foam is sufficiently elastic to accommodate volume expansion and shrinkage of the particles of the anode active material during a battery charge-discharge cycle to avoid an expansion of the anode layer.

The solid graphene foam typically has a density from 0.01 to 1.7 g/cm³, a specific surface area from 50 to 2,000 m²/g, a thermal conductivity of at least 100 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, and/or an electrical conductivity no less than 1,000 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.

In an embodiment, the anode active material is selected from the group consisting of: (a) silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and cadmium (Cd); (b) alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co, or Cd with other elements; (c) oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, V, or Cd, and their mixtures, composites, or lithium-containing composites; (d) salts and hydroxides of Sn; (e) lithium titanate, lithium manganate, lithium aluminate, lithium-containing titanium oxide, lithium transition metal oxide; (f) prelithiated versions thereof; (g) particles of Li, Li alloy, or surface-stabilized Li; and (h) combinations thereof. The prelithiated version of a high-capacity anode active material means an anode active material that is intercalated or inserted with a desired amount of lithium before this anode active material is introduced into the foam pores, or before this anode active material is mixed with the graphene material to form a foamed structure. In a preferred embodiment, the anode active material contains a prelithiated Si, prelithiated Ge, prelithiated Sn, prelithiated SnO_(x), prelithiated SiO_(x), prelithiated iron oxide, prelithiated VO₂, prelithiated Co₃O₄, prelithiated Ni₃O₄, or a combination thereof, wherein x=1 to 2.

Preferably, the anode active material is in a form of nano particle, nano wire, nano fiber, nano tube, nano sheet, nano belt, nano ribbon, or nano coating having a thickness or diameter less than 100 nm. More preferably, the anode active material has a dimension less than 20 nm.

In a preferred embodiment, the anode layer further comprises a carbon or graphite material therein, wherein the carbon or graphite material is in electronic contact with or deposited onto the anode active material. Most preferably, this carbon or graphite material embraces the particles of the anode active material and the embraced particles are then lodged in the pores of the graphene foam. The carbon or graphite material may be selected from polymeric carbon, amorphous carbon, chemical vapor deposition carbon, coal tar pitch, petroleum pitch, meso-phase pitch, carbon black, coke, acetylene black, activated carbon, fine expanded graphite particle with a dimension smaller than 100 nm, artificial graphite particle, natural graphite particle, or a combination thereof. Most preferably, the anode layer further comprises a conductive protective coating, selected from a carbon material, electronically conductive polymer, conductive metal oxide, conductive metal coating, or a lithium-conducting material, which is deposited onto or wrapped around the nano particle, nano wire, nano fiber, nano tube, nano sheet, nano belt, nano ribbon, or nano coating. Preferably, the nano particle, nano wire, nano fiber, nano tube, nano sheet, nano belt, nano ribbon, or nano coating is prelithiated. The coating can be a lithium-conducting material.

Typically, in the invented anode layer, the pore walls contain stacked graphene planes having an inter-plane spacing d₀₀₂ from 0.3354 nm to 0.36 nm as measured by X-ray diffraction. The pore walls can contain a pristine graphene and the solid graphene foam has a density from 0.5 to 1.7 g/cm³ or the pores have a pore size from 2 nm to 200 nm, preferably from 2 nm to 100 nm. Alternatively, the non-pristine graphene material contains a content of non-carbon elements from 0.01% to 2.0% by weight. In one embodiment, the pore walls contain graphene fluoride and the solid graphene foam contains a fluorine content from 0.01% to 2.0% by weight. In another embodiment, the pore walls contain graphene oxide and the solid graphene foam contains an oxygen content from 0.01% to 2.0% by weight. Typically, the non-carbon elements include an element selected from oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, nitrogen, hydrogen, or boron Typically, the solid graphene foam has a specific surface area from 200 to 2,000 m²/g or a density from 0.1 to 1.5 g/cm³.

In a preferred embodiment, the anode layer is made from a layer that is a continuous-length roll sheet form having a thickness no greater than 300 μm and a length of at least 2 meters and is produced by a roll-to-roll process.

In a desired embodiment, the graphene foam in the anode layer has an oxygen content or non-carbon content less than 1% by weight, and the pore walls have an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.35 nm, a thermal conductivity of at least 250 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, and/or an electrical conductivity no less than 2,500 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.

In a preferred embodiment, the graphene foam has an oxygen content or non-carbon content less than 0.01% by weight and the pore walls contain stacked graphene planes having an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.34 nm, a thermal conductivity of at least 300 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, and/or an electrical conductivity no less than 3,000 S/cm per unit of specific gravity. Further preferably, the graphene foam has an oxygen content or non-carbon content no greater than 0.01% by weight and the pore walls contain stacked graphene planes having an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.336 nm, a mosaic spread value no greater than 0.7, a thermal conductivity of at least 350 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, and/or an electrical conductivity no less than 3,500 S/cm per unit of specific gravity. Most preferably, the graphene foam has pore walls containing stacked graphene planes having an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.336 nm, a mosaic spread value no greater than 0.4, a thermal conductivity greater than 400 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, and/or an electrical conductivity greater than 4,000 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.

The pore walls may contain stacked graphene planes having an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.337 nm and a mosaic spread value less than 1.0. In an embodiment, the solid graphene foam exhibits a degree of graphitization no less than 80% and/or a mosaic spread value less than 0.4. More preferably, the solid graphene foam exhibits a degree of graphitization no less than 90% and/or a mosaic spread value no greater than 0.4. Typically, in the invented anode layer, the pore walls contain a 3D network of interconnected graphene planes. The graphene foam contains pores having a pore size from 20 nm to 500 nm.

The present invention also provides a lithium battery containing the anode or negative electrode as defined above, a cathode or positive electrode, and an electrolyte in ionic contact with the anode and the cathode. This lithium battery can further contain a cathode current collector in electronic contact with the cathode.

In an embodiment, the lithium battery further contains an anode current collector in electronic contact with the anode. Alternatively and more preferably, in the lithium battery, the graphene foam operates as an anode current collector to collect electrons from the anode active material during a charge of the lithium battery, which contains no separate or additional current collector. The lithium battery can be a lithium-ion battery, lithium metal battery, lithium-sulfur battery, or lithium-air battery.

In a preferred embodiment, the solid graphene foam-protected anode active material is made into a continuous-length roll sheet form (a roll of a continuous foam sheet) having a thickness no greater than 200 μm and a length of at least 1 meter long, preferably at least 2 meters, further preferably at least 10 meters, and most preferably at least 100 meters. This sheet roll is produced by a roll-to-roll process. There has been no prior art graphene foam that is made into a sheet roll form. It has not been previously found or suggested possible to have a roll-to-roll process for producing a continuous length of graphene foam, either pristine or non-pristine.

The presently invented anode layer may be produced by a process comprising:

(a) preparing a graphene dispersion having particles of an anode active material and a graphene material dispersed in a liquid medium, wherein the graphene material is selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof and wherein the dispersion contains an optional blowing agent; (b) dispensing and depositing the graphene dispersion onto a surface of a supporting substrate (e.g. plastic film, rubber sheet, metal foil, glass sheet, paper sheet, etc.) to form a wet layer of graphene-anode material mixture, wherein the dispensing and depositing procedure includes subjecting the graphene dispersion to an orientation-inducing stress; (c) partially or completely removing the liquid medium from the wet layer of graphene-anode material mixture to form a dried layer of material mixture having a content of non-carbon elements (e.g. O, H, N, B, F, Cl, Br, I, etc.) no less than 5% by weight; and (d) heat treating the dried layer of material mixture at a first heat treatment temperature from 100° C. to 3,200° C. at a desired heating rate sufficient to induce volatile gas molecules from the non-carbon elements or to activate the blowing agent for producing the anode layer.

The solid graphene foam in the anode layer typically has a density from 0.01 to 1.7 g/cm³ (more typically from 0.1 to 1.5 g/cm³, and even more typically from 0.1 to 1.0 g/cm³, and most typically from 0.2 to 0.75 g/cm³), or a specific surface area from 50 to 3,000 m²/g (more typically from 200 to 2,000 m²/g, and most typically from 500 to 1,500 m²/g).

This optional blowing agent is not required if the graphene material has a content of non-carbon elements (e.g. O, H, N, B, F, Cl, Br, I, etc.) no less than 5% by weight (preferably no less than 10%, further preferably no less than 20%, even more preferably no less than 30% or 40%, and most preferably up to 50%). The subsequent high temperature treatment serves to remove a majority of these non-carbon elements from the graphene material, generating volatile gas species that produce pores or cells in the solid graphene material structure. In other words, quite surprisingly, these non-carbon elements play the role of a blowing agent. Hence, an externally added blowing agent is optional (not required). However, the use of a blowing agent can provide added flexibility in regulating or adjusting the porosity level and pore sizes for a desired application. The blowing agent is typically required if the non-carbon element content is less than 5%, such as pristine graphene that is essentially all-carbon.

The blowing agent can be a physical blowing agent, a chemical blowing agent, a mixture thereof, a dissolution-and-leaching agent, or a mechanically introduced blowing agent.

The process may further include a step of heat-treating the anode layer at a second heat treatment temperature higher than the first heat treatment temperature for a length of time sufficient for obtaining an anode layer wherein the pore walls contain stacked graphene planes having an inter-plane spacing d₀₀₂ from 0.3354 nm to 0.40 nm and a content of non-carbon elements less than 5% by weight (typically from 0.001% to 2%). When the resulting non-carbon element content is from 0.1% to 2.0%, the inter-plane spacing d₀₀₂ is typically from 0.337 nm to 0.40 nm.

If the original graphene material in the dispersion contains a fraction of non-carbon elements higher than 5% by weight, the graphene material in the solid graphene foam (after the heat treatment) contains structural defects that are induced during the step (d) of heat treating. The liquid medium can be simply water and/or an alcohol, which is environmentally benign.

In a preferred embodiment, the process is a roll-to-roll process wherein steps (b) and (c) include feeding the supporting substrate from a feeder roller to a deposition zone, continuously or intermittently depositing the graphene dispersion onto a surface of the supporting substrate to form the wet layer thereon, drying the wet layer to form the dried layer of material mixture, and collecting the dried layer of material mixture deposited on the supporting substrate on a collector roller. Such a roll-to-roll or reel-to-reel process is a truly industrial-scale, massive manufacturing process that can be automated.

In one embodiment, the first heat treatment temperature is from 100° C. to 1,500° C. In another embodiment, the second heat treatment temperature includes at least a temperature selected from (A) 300-1,500° C., (B) 1,500-2,100° C., and/or (C) 2,100-3,200° C. In a specific embodiment, the second heat treatment temperature includes a temperature in the range of 300-1,500° C. for at least 1 hour and then a temperature in the range of 1,500-3,200° C. for at least 1 hour.

There are several surprising results of conducting first and/or second heat treatments to the dried graphene-anode active material mixture layer, and different heat treatment temperature ranges enable us to achieve different purposes, such as (a) removal of non-carbon elements from the graphene material (e.g. thermal reduction of fluorinated graphene to obtain graphene or reduced graphene fluoride, RGF)) which generate volatile gases to produce pores or cells in a graphene material, (b) activation of the chemical or physical blowing agent to produce pores or cells, (c) chemical merging or linking of graphene sheets to significantly increase the lateral dimension of graphene sheets in the foam walls (solid portion of the foam), (d) healing of defects created during fluorination, oxidation, or nitrogenation of graphene planes in a graphite particle, and (e) re-organization and perfection of graphitic domains or graphite crystals. These different purposes or functions are achieved to different extents within different temperature ranges. The non-carbon elements typically include an element selected from oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, nitrogen, hydrogen, or boron. Quite surprisingly, even under low-temperature foaming conditions, heat-treating induces chemical linking, merging, or chemical bonding between graphene sheets, often in an edge-to-edge manner (some in face-to-face manner).

In one embodiment, the solid graphene foam, minus the anode active material, has a specific surface area from 200 to 2,000 m²/g. In one embodiment, the solid graphene foam has a density from 0.1 to 1.5 g/cm³. In an embodiment, step (d) of heat treating the dried layer of graphene-anode active material mixture at a first heat treatment temperature is conducted under a compressive stress. In another embodiment, the process comprises a compression step to reduce a thickness, pore size, or porosity level of the sheet of graphene foam. In battery cells, the anode layer typically has a thickness from 10 μm to 300 μm, more typically from 50 μm to 200 μm.

In an embodiment, the graphene dispersion has at least 3% by weight of graphene oxide dispersed in the liquid medium to form a liquid crystal phase. In another embodiment, the graphene dispersion contains a graphene oxide dispersion prepared by immersing a graphitic material in a powder or fibrous form in an oxidizing liquid in a reaction vessel at a reaction temperature for a length of time sufficient to obtain the graphene dispersion wherein the graphitic material is selected from natural graphite, artificial graphite, meso-phase carbon, meso-phase pitch, meso-carbon micro-bead, soft carbon, hard carbon, coke, carbon fiber, carbon nano-fiber, carbon nano-tube, or a combination thereof and wherein the graphene oxide has an oxygen content no less than 5% by weight.

In an embodiment, the first heat treatment temperature contains a temperature in the range of 80° C.-300° C. and, as a result, the graphene foam has an oxygen content or non-carbon element content less than 5%, and the pore walls have an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.40 nm, a thermal conductivity of at least 150 W/mK (more typically at least 200 W/mk) per unit of specific gravity, and/or an electrical conductivity no less than 2,000 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.

In a preferred embodiment, the first and/or second heat treatment temperature contains a temperature in the range of 300° C.-1,500° C. and, as a result, the graphene foam has an oxygen content or non-carbon content less than 1%, and the pore walls have an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.35 nm, a thermal conductivity of at least 250 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, and/or an electrical conductivity no less than 2,500 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.

When the first and/or second heat treatment temperature contains a temperature in the range of 1,500° C.-2,100° C., the graphene foam has an oxygen content or non-carbon content less than 0.01% and pore walls have an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.34 nm, a thermal conductivity of at least 300 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, and/or an electrical conductivity no less than 3,000 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.

When the first and/or second heat treatment temperature contains a temperature greater than 2,100° C., the graphene foam has an oxygen content or non-carbon content no greater than 0.001% and pore walls have an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.336 nm, a mosaic spread value no greater than 0.7, a thermal conductivity of at least 350 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, and/or an electrical conductivity no less than 3,500 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.

If the first and/or second heat treatment temperature contains a temperature no less than 2,500° C., the graphene foam has pore walls containing stacked graphene planes having an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.336 nm, a mosaic spread value no greater than 0.4, and a thermal conductivity greater than 400 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, and/or an electrical conductivity greater than 4,000 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.

In one embodiment, the pore walls contain stacked graphene planes having an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.337 nm and a mosaic spread value less than 1.0. In another embodiment, the solid wall portion of the graphene foam exhibits a degree of graphitization no less than 80% and/or a mosaic spread value less than 0.4. In yet another embodiment, the solid wall portion of the graphene foam exhibits a degree of graphitization no less than 90% and/or a mosaic spread value no greater than 0.4.

Typically, the pore walls contain a 3D network of interconnected graphene planes that are electron-conducting pathways. The cell walls contain graphitic domains or graphite crystals having a lateral dimension (L_(a), length or width) no less than 20 nm, more typically and preferably no less than 40 nm, still more typically and preferably no less than 100 nm, still more typically and preferably no less than 500 nm, often greater than 1 μm, and sometimes greater than 10 μm. The graphitic domains typically have a thickness from 1 nm to 200 nm, more typically from 1 nm to 100 nm, further more typically from 1 nm to 40 nm, and most typically from 1 nm to 30 nm.

Preferably, the solid graphene foam contains pores having a pore size from 2 nm to 10 μm (preferably 2 nm to 500 nm and more preferably from 2 nm to 200 nm). It may be noted that it has not been possible to use Ni-catalyzed CVD to produce graphene foams having a pore size range of 2-20 nm. This is due to the notion that it has not been proven possible to prepare Ni foam templates having such a pore size range and not possible for the hydrocarbon gas (precursor molecules) to readily enter Ni foam pores of these sizes. These Ni foam pores must also be interconnected. Additionally, the sacrificial plastic colloidal particle approaches have resulted in macro-pores that are in the size range of microns to millimeters.

In a preferred embodiment, the present invention provides a roll-to-roll process for producing an anode layer composed of an anode active material and a solid graphene foam, which is composed of multiple pores and pore walls. The process comprises: (a) preparing a graphene dispersion having an anode active material and a graphene material dispersed in a liquid medium, wherein the dispersion optionally contains a blowing agent; (b) continuously or intermittently dispensing and depositing the graphene dispersion onto a surface of a supporting substrate to form a wet layer of graphene-anode active material mixture, wherein the supporting substrate is a continuous thin film supplied from a feeder roller and collected on a collector roller; (c) partially or completely removing the liquid medium from the wet layer to form a dried layer of material mixture; and (d) heat treating the dried layer of material mixture at a first heat treatment temperature from 100° C. to 3,000° C. at a desired heating rate sufficient to activate the blowing agent for producing said solid graphene foam having a density from 0.01 to 1.7 g/cm³ or a specific surface area from 50 to 3,000 m²/g.

The orientation-inducing stress may be a shear stress. As an example, the shear stress can be encountered in a situation as simple as a “doctor's blade” that guides the spreading of graphene dispersion over a plastic or glass surface during a manual casting process. As another example, an effective orientation-inducing stress is created in an automated roll-to-roll coating process in which a “knife-on-roll” configuration dispenses the graphene dispersion over a moving solid substrate, such as a plastic film. The relative motion between this moving film and the coating knife acts to effect orientation of graphene sheets along the shear stress direction.

This orientation-inducing stress is a critically important step in the production of the presently invented graphene foams due to the surprising observation that the shear stress enables the graphene sheets to align along a particular direction (e.g. X-direction or length-direction) to produce preferred orientations and facilitate contacts between graphene sheets along foam walls. Further surprisingly, these preferred orientations and improved graphene-to-graphene contacts facilitate chemical merging or linking between graphene sheets during the subsequent heat treatment of the dried graphene layer. Such preferred orientations and improved contacts are essential to the eventual attainment of exceptionally high thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, elastic modulus, and mechanical strength of the resulting graphene foam. In general, these great properties could not be obtained without such a shear stress-induced orientation control.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 (A) schematic illustrating the notion that expansion of Si particles, upon lithium intercalation, can lead to pulverization of Si particles, interruption of the conductive paths formed by the conductive additive, and loss of contact with the current collector; (B) schematic of a graphene foam-protected anode active material according to an embodiment.

FIG. 2 (A) A flow chart illustrating various prior art processes of producing exfoliated graphite products (flexible graphite foils and expanded graphite flakes), along with a process for producing pristine graphene foam 40 a or graphene oxide foams 40 b; (B) Schematic drawing illustrating the processes for producing conventional paper, mat, film, and membrane of simply aggregated graphite or NGP flakes/platelets. All processes begin with intercalation and/or oxidation treatment of graphitic materials (e.g. natural graphite particles).

FIG. 3 (A) schematic of a prior art lithium-ion battery cell, wherein the anode layer is a thin coating of an anode active material itself; and (B) schematic of another lithium-ion battery; the anode layer being composed of particles of an anode active material, a conductive additive (not shown) and a resin binder (not shown).

FIG. 4 A possible mechanism of chemical linking between graphene oxide sheets, which mechanism effectively increases the graphene sheet lateral dimensions.

FIG. 5 (A) Thermal conductivity values vs. specific gravity of the GO suspension-derived foam produced by the presently invented process, meso-phase pitch-derived graphite foam, and Ni foam-template assisted CVD graphene foam; (B) Thermal conductivity values of the GO suspension-derived foam, sacrificial plastic bead-templated GO foam, and the hydrothermally reduced GO graphene foam; (C) electrical conductivity data for the GO suspension-derived foam produced by the presently invented process and the hydrothermally reduced GO graphene foam; and (D) The specific capacity of a lithium battery having a pristine graphene foam-protected Si and that of a pristine graphene-Si mixture as an electrode material (lithium metal as the counter-electrode in a half-cell configuration) plotted as a function of the number of charge-discharge cycles.

FIG. 6 (A) Thermal conductivity values (vs. specific gravity values up to 1.02 g/cm³) of the GO suspension-derived foam, meso-phase pitch-derived graphite foam, and Ni foam-template assisted CVD graphene foam; (B) Thermal conductivity values of the GO suspension-derived foam, sacrificial plastic bead-templated GO foam, and hydrothermally reduced GO graphene foam (vs. specific gravity values up to 1.02 g/cm³); (C) Specific capacities of three anode layers: the presently invented GO-derived graphene foam-protected Sn, Sn only (without graphene foam protection), graphene foam only, and theoretical prediction based on the rule-of-mixture law; (D) Specific capacities of two anode layers: the presently invented GO-derived graphene foam-protected SnO₂ and hydrothermally reduced GO-derived graphene foam-protected SnO₂.

FIG. 7 Thermal conductivity values of graphene foam samples derived from GO and GF (graphene fluoride) as a function of the specific gravity.

FIG. 8 Thermal conductivity values of graphene foam samples derived from GO and pristine graphene as a function of the final (maximum) heat treatment temperature.

FIG. 9 (A) Inter-graphene plane spacing in graphene foam walls as measured by X-ray diffraction; (B) the oxygen content in the GO suspension-derived graphene foam.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

This invention is directed at the anode layer (negative electrode layer) containing a high-capacity anode material for the lithium secondary battery, which is preferably a secondary battery based on a non-aqueous electrolyte, a polymer gel electrolyte, an ionic liquid electrolyte, a quasi-solid electrolyte, or a solid-state electrolyte. The shape of a lithium secondary battery can be cylindrical, square, button-like, etc. The present invention is not limited to any battery shape or configuration. For convenience, we will use Si, Sn, or SnO₂ as illustrative examples of a high-capacity anode active material. This should not be construed as limiting the scope of the invention.

As illustrated in FIGS. 4(A) and 4(B), a lithium-ion battery cell is typically composed of an anode current collector (e.g. Cu foil), an anode or negative electrode (anode layer containing an anode active material, conductive additive, and binder), a porous separator and/or an electrolyte component, a cathode electrode (cathode active material, conductive additive, and resin binder), and a cathode current collector (e.g. Al foil). In a more commonly used cell configuration (FIG. 4(B)), the anode layer is composed of particles of an anode active material (e.g. graphite, Sn, SnO₂, or Si), a conductive additive (e.g. carbon black particles), and a resin binder (e.g. SBR or PVDF). This anode layer is typically 50-300 μm thick (more typically 100-200 μm) to give rise to a sufficient amount of current per unit electrode area. This thickness range is an industry-accepted constraint under which a battery designer must work. This constraint is due to several reasons: (a) the existing battery electrode coating machines are not equipped to coat excessively thin or excessively thick electrode layers; (b) a thinner layer is preferred based on the consideration of reduced lithium ion diffusion path lengths; but, too thin a layer (e.g. <<100 μm) does not contain a sufficient amount of an active lithium storage material (hence, insufficient current output); and (c) all non-active material layers in a battery cell (e.g. current collectors, conductive additive, binder resin, and separator) must be kept to a minimum in order to obtain a minimum overhead weight and a maximum lithium storage capability and, hence, a maximized energy density (Wk/kg or Wh/L of cell).

In a less commonly used cell configuration, as illustrated in FIG. 4(A), the anode active material is deposited in a thin film form directly onto an anode current collector, such as a sheet of copper foil. However, such a thin film structure with an extremely small thickness-direction dimension (typically much smaller than 500 nm, often necessarily thinner than 100 nm) implies that only a small amount of active material can be incorporated in an electrode (given the same electrode or current collector surface area), providing a low total lithium storage capacity and low lithium storage capacity per unit electrode surface area. Such a thin film must have a thickness less than 100 nm to be more resistant to cycling-induced cracking. Such a constraint further diminishes the total lithium storage capacity and the lithium storage capacity per unit electrode surface area. Such a thin-film battery has very limited scope of application. On the other hand, a Si layer thicker than 100 nm has been found to exhibit poor cracking resistance during battery charge/discharge cycles. It takes but a few cycles to get such a thick film fragmented. A desirable electrode thickness is at least 100 μm. These thin-film electrodes (with a thickness <100 nm) fall short of the required thickness by three (3) orders of magnitude. As a further problem, Si or SiO₂ film-based anode layers cannot be too thick either since these materials are not conductive to both electrons and lithium ions. A large layer thickness implies an excessively high internal resistance.

In other words, there are several conflicting factors that must be considered concurrently when it comes to the design and selection of an anode active material in terms of material type, shape, size, porosity, and electrode layer thickness. Thus far, there has been no effective solution offered by any prior art teaching to these often conflicting problems. We have solved these challenging issues that have troubled battery designers and electrochemists alike for more than 30 years by developing the graphene foam-protected anode active material.

The present invention provides an anode layer containing (A) a sheet of solid graphene foam composed of multiple pores and pore walls and (B) an anode active material with the particles of this anode active material residing in some of these pores; some pores remaining unoccupied, acting to cushion volume expansion of anode active material particles. The invention also provides a process for producing such an anode layer.

More specifically, the invented anode or negative electrode layer comprises an anode active material embedded in pores of a solid graphene foam, which is composed of multiple pores and pore walls (solid portion of the graphene foam), wherein (a) the pore walls contain a pristine graphene material having essentially zero % of non-carbon elements or a non-pristine graphene material having 0.001% to 5% by weight of non-carbon elements, wherein the non-pristine graphene is selected from graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, boron-doped graphene, nitrogen-doped graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof; (b) the anode active material is in an amount from 0.5% to 99% by weight (preferably from 2% to 90% by weight and more preferably from 5% to 80% by weight) based on the total weight of the graphene foam and the anode active material combined; and (c) some pores are lodged with the particles of the anode active material and other pores are particle-free, and the graphene foam is sufficiently elastic to accommodate volume expansion and shrinkage of the particles of the anode active material during battery charge-discharge cycles to avoid expansion of the anode layer. The bonded graphene planes in the foam walls produced by the presently invented process are found to be capable of elastically deforming to the extent that is responsive to the expansion and shrinkage of the anode active material particles.

The solid graphene foam typically has a density from 0.01 to 1.7 g/cm³, (more typically from 0.05 to 1.6 g/cm³, further more typically from 0.1 to 1.5 g/cm³, and more desirably from 0.5 to 0.01 to 1.3 g/cm³), a specific surface area from 50 to 2,000 m²/g, a thermal conductivity of at least 100 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, and/or an electrical conductivity no less than 1,000 S/cm per unit of specific gravity. It may be noted that these ranges of physical densities are not arbitrarily selected ranges. On the one hand, these densities are designed so that the internal pore amount (level of porosity) is sufficiently large to accommodate the maximum expansion of an anode active material, which varies from one anode active material to another (e.g. approximately 300%-380% maximum volume expansion for Si and approximately 200% for SnO₂). On the other hand, the pore amount cannot be too large (or physical density being too low); otherwise, the pore walls of the graphene foam structure cannot be sufficiently elastic (or, not capable of undergoing a large deformation that is fully recoverable or reversible).

Ideally, the pores should expand to the same extent as the embraced anode active material particle does; and should shrink back to the same extent as the anode active material particle. In other words, the graphene foam walls must be fully elastic to meet such a requirement. This is a most challenging task; but, we have surprisingly observed that good elasticity of graphene foam can be achieved with sufficiently long/wide graphene planes (length/width of graphene planes larger than pore diameters) and a sufficient amount (5%-50% of total pore volumes) of small pores (2-100 nm) that are not occupied by an anode active material particle.

The anode active material may be selected from the group consisting of (a) silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and cadmium (Cd); (b) alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co, or Cd with other elements; (c) oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, V, or Cd, and their mixtures, composites, or lithium-containing composites; (d) salts and hydroxides of Sn; (e) lithium titanate, lithium manganate, lithium aluminate, lithium-containing titanium oxide, lithium transition metal oxide; (f) prelithiated versions thereof; (g) particles of Li, Li alloy, or surface-stabilized Li; and (h) combinations thereof. Particles of Li or Li alloy, particularly surface-stabilized Li particles (e.g. wax-coated Li particles), were found to be good anode active material per se or an extra lithium source to compensate for the loss of Li ions that are otherwise supplied only from the cathode active material. The presence of these Li or Li-alloy particles was found to significantly improve the cycling performance of a lithium-ion cell.

The anode active material may include particles of natural graphite or artificial graphite, prelithiated or non-lithiated. The particles of the anode active material may be in the form of a nano particle, nano wire, nano fiber, nano tube, nano sheet, nano belt, nano ribbon, or nano coating. Preferably, the nano particle, nano wire, nano fiber, nano tube, nano sheet, nano belt, nano ribbon, or nano coating is prelithiated. Preferably, the particles are embraced by an electron-conducting and/or lithium-conducting coating, such as an amorphous carbon produced by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or pyrolization of a resin.

Briefly, the process for producing the invented anode layer comprises the following steps:

(a) preparing a graphene dispersion having particles of an anode active material and sheets or molecules of a graphene material dispersed in a liquid medium, wherein the graphene material is selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof and wherein the dispersion contains an optional blowing agent with a blowing agent-to-graphene material weight ratio from 0/1.0 to 1.0/1.0 (this blowing agent is normally required if the graphene material is pristine graphene, typically having a blowing agent-to-pristine graphene weight ratio from 0.01/1.0 to 1.0/1.0);

(b) dispensing and depositing the graphene dispersion onto a surface of a supporting substrate (e.g. plastic film, rubber sheet, metal foil, glass sheet, paper sheet, etc.) to form a wet layer of graphene-anode material mixture, wherein the dispensing and depositing procedure (e.g. coating or casting) preferably includes subjecting the graphene dispersion to an orientation-inducing stress;

(c) partially or completely removing the liquid medium from the wet layer of graphene material to form a dried layer of material mixture, with the graphene material having a content of non-carbon elements (e.g. O, H, N, B, F, Cl, Br, I, etc.) no less than 5% by weight (this non-carbon content, when being removed via heat-induced decomposition, produces volatile gases that act as a foaming agent or blowing agent); and

(d) heat treating the dried layer of material mixture at a first heat treatment temperature from 100° C. to 3,000° C. at a desired heating rate sufficient to induce volatile gas molecules from the non-carbon elements in the graphene material or to activate the blowing agent for producing the solid graphene foam. The graphene foam typically has a density from 0.01 to 1.7 g/cm³ (more typically from 0.1 to 1.5 g/cm³, and even more typically from 0.1 to 1.0 g/cm³, and most typically from 0.2 to 0.75 g/cm³), or a specific surface area from 50 to 3,000 m²/g (more typically from 200 to 2,000 m²/g, and most typically from 500 to 1,500 m²/g).

The pores in the graphene foam are formed slightly before, during, or after sheets of a graphene material are (1) chemically linked/merged together (edge-to-edge and/or face-to-face) typically at a temperature from 100 to 1,500° C. and/or (2) re-organized into larger graphite crystals or domains (herein referred to as re-graphitization) along the pore walls at a high temperature (typically >2,100° C. and more typically >2,500° C.). It may be noted that the particles of the anode active material may be in the form of small particulate, wire, rod, sheet, platelet, ribbon, tube, etc. with a size of <20 μm (preferably <10 μm, more preferably <5 μm, further preferably <1 μm, still more preferably <300 nm, and most preferably <100 nm). These particles are naturally embraced by graphene sheets, typically leaving behind some gap between the particle and the embracing graphene sheets. Hence, where particles are present, there are pores in the graphene foam. However, there are additional pores that are formed due to the evolution of volatile gases (from a blowing agent and/or non-carbon elements, such as —OH, —F, etc.) during the heat treatment of the dried graphene layer. These pores play the role of cushioning the local volume expansion of anode particles, thereby avoiding global expansion of the resulting anode layer. The ability of the pore walls to snap back according to the shrinkage extent of the anode particles comes from the surrounding graphene sheets that are bonded and joint to form larger and stronger graphene planes during heat treatments.

A blowing agent or foaming agent is a substance which is capable of producing a cellular or foamed structure via a foaming process in a variety of materials that undergo hardening or phase transition, such as polymers (plastics and rubbers), glass, and metals. They are typically applied when the material being foamed is in a liquid state. It has not been previously known that a blowing agent can be used to create a foamed material while in a solid state. More significantly, it has not been taught or hinted that an aggregate of sheets of a graphene material can be converted into a graphene foam via a blowing agent. The cellular structure in a matrix is typically created for the purpose of reducing density, increasing thermal resistance and acoustic insulation, while increasing the thickness and relative stiffness of the original polymer.

Blowing agents or related foaming mechanisms to create pores or cells (bubbles) in a matrix for producing a foamed or cellular material, can be classified into the following groups:

-   -   (a) Physical blowing agents: e.g. hydrocarbons (e.g. pentane,         isopentane, cyclopentane), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),         hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and liquid CO₂. The         bubble/foam-producing process is endothermic, i.e. it needs heat         (e.g. from a melt process or the chemical exotherm due to         cross-linking), to volatize a liquid blowing agent.     -   (b) Chemical blowing agents: e.g. isocyanate, azo-, hydrazine         and other nitrogen-based materials (for thermoplastic and         elastomeric foams), sodium bicarbonate (e.g. baking soda, used         in thermoplastic foams). Here gaseous products and other         by-products are formed by a chemical reaction, promoted by         process or a reacting polymer's exothermic heat. Since the         blowing reaction involves forming low molecular weight compounds         that act as the blowing gas, additional exothermic heat is also         released. Powdered titanium hydride is used as a foaming agent         in the production of metal foams, as it decomposes to form         titanium and hydrogen gas at elevated temperatures.         Zirconium (II) hydride is used for the same purpose. Once formed         the low molecular weight compounds will never revert to the         original blowing agent(s), i.e. the reaction is irreversible.     -   (c) Mixed physical/chemical blowing agents: e.g. used to produce         flexible polyurethane (PU) foams with very low densities. Both         the chemical and physical blowing can be used in tandem to         balance each other out with respect to thermal energy         released/absorbed; hence, minimizing temperature rise. For         instance, isocyanate and water (which react to form CO₂) are         used in combination with liquid CO₂ (which boils to give gaseous         form) in the production of very low density flexible PU foams         for mattresses.     -   (d) Mechanically injected agents: Mechanically made foams         involve methods of introducing bubbles into liquid polymerizable         matrices (e.g. an unvulcanized elastomer in the form of a liquid         latex). Methods include whisking-in air or other gases or low         boiling volatile liquids in low viscosity lattices, or the         injection of a gas into an extruder barrel or a die, or into         injection molding barrels or nozzles and allowing the shear/mix         action of the screw to disperse the gas uniformly to form very         fine bubbles or a solution of gas in the melt. When the melt is         molded or extruded and the part is at atmospheric pressure, the         gas comes out of solution expanding the polymer melt immediately         before solidification.     -   (e) Soluble and leachable agents: Soluble fillers, e.g. solid         sodium chloride crystals mixed into a liquid urethane system,         which is then shaped into a solid polymer part, the sodium         chloride is later washed out by immersing the solid molded part         in water for some time, to leave small inter-connected holes in         relatively high density polymer products.     -   (f) We have found that the above five mechanisms can all be used         to create pores in the graphene materials while they are in a         solid state. Another mechanism of producing pores in a graphene         material is through the generation and vaporization of volatile         gases by removing those non-carbon elements in a         high-temperature environment. This is a unique self-foaming         process that has never been previously taught or suggested.

In a preferred embodiment, the graphene material in the dispersion is selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof. The starting graphitic material for producing any one of the above graphene materials may be selected from natural graphite, artificial graphite, meso-phase carbon, meso-phase pitch, meso-carbon micro-bead, soft carbon, hard carbon, coke, carbon fiber, carbon nano-fiber, carbon nano-tube, or a combination thereof.

For instance, as discussed in the Background section, the graphene oxide (GO) may be obtained by immersing powders or filaments of a starting graphitic material (e.g. natural graphite powder) in an oxidizing liquid medium (e.g. a mixture of sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and potassium permanganate) in a reaction vessel at a desired temperature for a period of time (typically from 0.5 to 96 hours, depending upon the nature of the starting material and the type of oxidizing agent used). The resulting graphite oxide particles may then be subjected to thermal exfoliation or ultrasonic wave-induced exfoliation to produce GO sheets.

Pristine graphene may be produced by direct ultrasonication (also known as liquid phase production) or supercritical fluid exfoliation of graphite particles. These processes are well-known in the art. Multiple pristine graphene sheets may be dispersed in water or other liquid medium with the assistance of a surfactant to form a suspension. A chemical blowing agent may then be dispersed into the dispersion (38 in FIG. 1(A)). This suspension is then cast or coated onto the surface of a solid substrate (e.g. glass sheet or Al foil). When heated to a desired temperature, the chemical blowing agent is activated or decomposed to generate volatile gases (e.g. N₂ or CO₂), which act to form bubbles or pores in an otherwise mass of solid graphene sheets, forming a pristine graphene foam 40 a.

Fluorinated graphene or graphene fluoride is herein used as an example of the halogenated graphene material group. There are two different approaches that have been followed to produce fluorinated graphene: (1) fluorination of pre-synthesized graphene: This approach entails treating graphene prepared by mechanical exfoliation or by CVD growth with fluorinating agent such as XeF₂, or F-based plasmas; (2) Exfoliation of multilayered graphite fluorides: Both mechanical exfoliation and liquid phase exfoliation of graphite fluoride can be readily accomplished [F. Karlicky, et al. “Halogenated Graphenes: Rapidly Growing Family of Graphene Derivatives” ACS Nano, 2013, 7 (8), pp 6434-6464].

Interaction of F₂ with graphite at high temperature leads to covalent graphite fluorides (CF)_(n) or (C₂F)_(n), while at low temperatures graphite intercalation compounds (GIC) C_(x)F (2≦x≦24) form. In (CF)_(n) carbon atoms are sp3-hybridized and thus the fluorocarbon layers are corrugated consisting of trans-linked cyclohexane chairs. In (C₂F)_(n) only half of the C atoms are fluorinated and every pair of the adjacent carbon sheets are linked together by covalent C—C bonds. Systematic studies on the fluorination reaction showed that the resulting F/C ratio is largely dependent on the fluorination temperature, the partial pressure of the fluorine in the fluorinating gas, and physical characteristics of the graphite precursor, including the degree of graphitization, particle size, and specific surface area. In addition to fluorine (F₂), other fluorinating agents may be used, although most of the available literature involves fluorination with F₂ gas, sometimes in presence of fluorides.

For exfoliating a layered precursor material to the state of individual layers or few-layers, it is necessary to overcome the attractive forces between adjacent layers and to further stabilize the layers. This may be achieved by either covalent modification of the graphene surface by functional groups or by non-covalent modification using specific solvents, surfactants, polymers, or donor-acceptor aromatic molecules. The process of liquid phase exfoliation includes ultrasonic treatment of a graphite fluoride in a liquid medium.

The nitrogenation of graphene can be conducted by exposing a graphene material, such as graphene oxide, to ammonia at high temperatures (200-400° C.). Nitrogenated graphene could also be formed at lower temperatures by a hydrothermal method; e.g. by sealing GO and ammonia in an autoclave and then increased the temperature to 150-250° C. Other methods to synthesize nitrogen doped graphene include nitrogen plasma treatment on graphene, arc-discharge between graphite electrodes in the presence of ammonia, ammonolysis of graphene oxide under CVD conditions, and hydrothermal treatment of graphene oxide and urea at different temperatures.

The pore walls (cell walls or solid graphene portion) in the graphene foam of the presently invented anode layer contain chemically bonded and merged graphene planes. These planar aromatic molecules or graphene planes (hexagonal structured carbon atoms) are well interconnected physically and chemically. The lateral dimensions (length or width) of these planes are huge (e.g. from 20 nm to >10 μm), typically several times or even orders of magnitude larger than the maximum crystallite dimension (or maximum constituent graphene plane dimension) of the starting graphite particles. The graphene sheets or planes are essentially merged and/or interconnected to form electron-conducting pathways with low resistance. This is a unique and new class of material that has not been previously discovered, developed, or suggested to possibly exist.

In order to illustrate how the presently invented process works to produce a graphene foam-protected anode layer, we herein make use of graphene oxide (GO) and graphene fluoride (GF) as two examples. These should not be construed as limiting the scope of our claims. In each case, the first step involves preparation of a graphene dispersion (e.g. GO+water or GF+organic solvent, DMF) containing an optional blowing agent. If the graphene material is pristine graphene containing no non-carbon elements, a blowing agent is required.

In step (b), the GF or GO suspension (21 in FIG. 1(A), but now also containing particles of a desired anode active material) is formed into a wet GF or GO layer 35 on a solid substrate surface (e.g. PET film or glass) preferably under the influence of a shear stress. One example of such a shearing procedure is casting or coating a thin film of GF or GO suspension using a coating machine. This procedure is similar to a layer of varnish, paint, coating, or ink being coated onto a solid substrate. The roller, “doctor's blade”, or wiper creates a shear stress when the film is shaped, or when there is a relative motion between the roller/blade/wiper and the supporting substrate. Quite unexpectedly and significantly, such a shearing action enables the planar GF or GO sheets to well align along, for instance, a shearing direction. Further surprisingly, such a molecular alignment state or preferred orientation is not disrupted when the liquid components in the GF or GO suspension are subsequently removed to form a well-packed layer of highly aligned GF or GO sheets that are at least partially dried. The dried GF or GO mass 37 a has a high birefringence coefficient between an in-plane direction and the normal-to-plane direction.

In an embodiment, this GF or GO layer, each containing an anode active material therein, is then subjected to a heat treatment to activate the blowing agent and/or the thermally-induced reactions that remove the non-carbon elements (e.g. F, O, etc.) from the graphene sheets to generate volatile gases as by-products. These volatile gases generate pores or bubbles inside the solid graphene material, pushing solid graphene sheets into a foam wall structure, forming a graphene oxide foam 40 b. If no blowing agent is added, the non-carbon elements in the graphene material preferably occupy at least 10% by weight of the graphene material (preferably at least 20%, and further preferably at least 30%). The first (initial) heat treatment temperature is typically greater than 80° C., preferably greater than 100° C., more preferably greater than 300° C., further more preferably greater than 500° C. and can be as high as 1,500° C. The blowing agent is typically activated at a temperature from 80° C. to 300° C., but can be higher. The foaming procedure (formation of pores, cells, or bubbles) is typically completed within the temperature range of 80-1,500° C. Quite surprisingly, the chemical linking or merging between graphene planes (GO or GF planes) in an edge-to-edge and face-to-face manner can occur at a relatively low heat treatment temperature (e.g. even as low as from 150 to 300° C.).

The foamed graphene material may be subjected to a further heat treatment that involves at least a second temperature that is significantly higher than the first heat treatment temperature.

A properly programmed heat treatment procedure can involve just a single heat treatment temperature (e.g. a first heat treatment temperature only), at least two heat treatment temperatures (first temperature for a period of time and then raised to a second temperature and maintained at this second temperature for another period of time), or any other combination of heat treatment temperatures (HTT) that involve an initial treatment temperature (first temperature) and a final HTT (second), higher than the first. The highest or final HTT that the dried graphene layer experiences may be divided into four distinct HTT regimes:

-   Regime 1 (80° C. to 300° C.): In this temperature range (the thermal     reduction regime and also the activation regime for a blowing agent,     if present), a GO or GF layer primarily undergoes thermally-induced     reduction reactions, leading to a reduction of oxygen content or     fluorine content from typically 20-50% (of O in GO) or 10-25% (of F     in GF) to approximately 5-6%. This treatment results in a reduction     of inter-graphene spacing in foam walls from approximately 0.6-1.2     nm (as dried) down to approximately 0.4 nm, and an increase in     thermal conductivity to 200 W/mK per unit specific gravity and/or     electrical conductivity to 2,000 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.     (Since one can vary the level of porosity and, hence, specific     gravity of a graphene foam material and, given the same graphene     material, both the thermal conductivity and electric conductivity     values vary with the specific gravity, these property values must be     divided by the specific gravity to facilitate a fair comparison.)     Even with such a low temperature range, some chemical linking     between graphene sheets occurs. The inter-GO or inter-GF planar     spacing remains relatively large (0.4 nm or larger). Many O- or     F-containing functional groups survive. -   Regime 2 (300° C.-1,500° C.): In this chemical linking regime,     extensive chemical combination, polymerization, and cross-linking     between adjacent GO or GF sheets occur. The oxygen or fluorine     content is reduced to typically <1.0% (e.g. 0.7%) after chemical     linking, resulting in a reduction of inter-graphene spacing to     approximately 0.345 nm. This implies that some initial     re-graphitization has already begun at such a low temperature, in     stark contrast to conventional graphitizable materials (such as     carbonized polyimide film) that typically require a temperature as     high as 2,500° C. to initiate graphitization. This is another     distinct feature of the presently invented graphene foam and its     production processes. These chemical linking reactions result in an     increase in thermal conductivity to 250 W/mK per unit of specific     gravity, and/or electrical conductivity to 2,500-4,000 S/cm per unit     of specific gravity. -   Regime 3 (1,500-2,500° C.): In this ordering and re-graphitization     regime, extensive graphitization or graphene plane merging occurs,     leading to significantly improved degree of structural ordering in     the foam walls. As a result, the oxygen or fluorine content is     reduced to typically 0.01% and the inter-graphene spacing to     approximately 0.337 nm (achieving degree of graphitization from 1%     to approximately 80%, depending upon the actual HTT and length of     time). The improved degree of ordering is also reflected by an     increase in thermal conductivity to >350 W/mK per unit of specific     gravity, and/or electrical conductivity to >3,500 S/cm per unit of     specific gravity. -   Regime 4 (higher than 2,500° C.): In this re-crystallization and     perfection regime, extensive movement and elimination of grain     boundaries and other defects occur, resulting in the formation of     nearly perfect single crystals or poly-crystalline graphene crystals     with huge grains in the foam walls, which can be orders of magnitude     larger than the original grain sizes of the starting graphite     particles for the production of GO or GF. The oxygen or fluorine     content is essentially eliminated, typically 0%-0.001%. The     inter-graphene spacing is reduced to down to approximately 0.3354 nm     (degree of graphitization from 80% to nearly 100%), corresponding to     that of a perfect graphite single crystal. The foamed structure thus     obtained exhibits a thermal conductivity of >400 W/mK per unit of     specific gravity, and electrical conductivity of >4,000 S/cm per     unit of specific gravity.

The presently invented graphene foam structure containing an anode active material therein can be obtained by heat-treating the dried GO or GF layer with a temperature program that covers at least the first regime (typically requiring 1-4 hours in this temperature range if the temperature never exceeds 500° C.), more commonly covers the first two regimes (1-2 hours preferred), still more commonly the first three regimes (preferably 0.5-2.0 hours in Regime 3), and can cover all the 4 regimes (including Regime 4 for 0.2 to 1 hour, may be implemented to achieve the highest conductivity).

The maximum HHT also depends on the type of anode active material embraced by the graphene material. For instance, Sn (melting point=231.9° C.) will not require a temperature higher than 300° C. and cannot tolerate a temperature higher than 500° C. Yet, tin dioxide (TiO₂), having a melting point of 1,630° C., can tolerate a temperature up to 2,100° C.

If the graphene material is selected from the group of non-pristine graphene materials consisting of graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof, and wherein the maximum heat treatment temperature (e.g. both the first and second heat treatment temperatures) is (are) less than 2,500° C., then the resulting solid graphene foam typically contains a content of non-carbon elements in the range of 0.01% to 2.0% by weight (non-pristine graphene foam).

X-ray diffraction patterns were obtained with an X-ray diffractometer equipped with CuKcv radiation. The shift and broadening of diffraction peaks were calibrated using a silicon powder standard. The degree of graphitization, g, was calculated from the X-ray pattern using the Mering's Eq, d₀₀₂=0.3354 g+0.344 (1−g), where d₀₀₂ is the interlayer spacing of graphite or graphene crystal in nm. This equation is valid only when d₀₀₂ is equal or less than approximately 0.3440 nm. The graphene foam walls having a d₀₀₂ higher than 0.3440 nm reflects the presence of oxygen- or fluorine-containing functional groups (such as —F, —OH, >O, and —COOH on graphene molecular plane surfaces or edges) that act as a spacer to increase the inter-graphene spacing.

Another structural index that can be used to characterize the degree of ordering of the stacked and bonded graphene planes in the foam walls of graphene and conventional graphite crystals is the “mosaic spread,” which is expressed by the full width at half maximum of a rocking curve (X-ray diffraction intensity) of the (002) or (004) reflection. This degree of ordering characterizes the graphite or graphene crystal size (or grain size), amounts of grain boundaries and other defects, and the degree of preferred grain orientation. A nearly perfect single crystal of graphite is characterized by having a mosaic spread value of 0.2-0.4. Most of our graphene walls have a mosaic spread value in this range of 0.2-0.4 (if produced with a heat treatment temperature (HTT) no less than 2,500° C.). However, some values are in the range of 0.4-0.7 if the HTT is between 1,500 and 2,500° C., and in the range of 0.7-1.0 if the HTT is between 300 and 1,500° C.

Illustrated in FIG. 4 is a plausible chemical linking mechanism where only 2 aligned GO molecules are shown as an example, although a large number of GO molecules can be chemically linked together to form a foam wall. Further, chemical linking could also occur face-to-face, not just edge-to-edge for GO, GF, and chemically functionalized graphene sheets. These linking and merging reactions proceed in such a manner that the molecules are chemically merged, linked, and integrated into one single entity. The graphene sheets (GO or GF sheets) completely lose their own original identity and they no longer are discrete sheets/platelets/flakes. The resulting product is not a simple aggregate of individual graphene sheets, but a single entity that is essentially a network of interconnected giant molecules with an essentially infinite molecular weight. This may also be described as a graphene poly-crystal (with several grains, but typically no discernible, well-defined grain boundaries). All the constituent graphene planes are very large in lateral dimensions (length and width) and, if the HTT is sufficiently high (e.g. >1,500° C. or much higher), these graphene planes are essentially bonded together with one another. The graphene foam of the presently invented anode layer has the following unique and novel features that have never been previously taught or hinted:

-   (1) In-depth studies using a combination of SEM, TEM, selected area     diffraction, X-ray diffraction, AFM, Raman spectroscopy, and FTIR     indicate that the graphene foam walls are composed of several huge     graphene planes (with length/width typically >>20 nm, more     typically >>100 nm, often >>1 μm, and, in many cases, >>10 μm, or     even >>100 μm). These giant graphene planes are stacked and bonded     along the thickness direction (crystallographic c-axis direction)     often through not just the van der Waals forces (as in conventional     graphite crystallites), but also covalent bonds, if the final heat     treatment temperature is lower than 2,500° C. In these cases,     wishing not to be limited by theory, but Raman and FTIR spectroscopy     studies appear to indicate the co-existence of sp² (dominating) and     sp³ (weak but existing) electronic configurations, not just the     conventional sp² in graphite. -   (2) This graphene foam wall is not made by gluing or bonding     discrete flakes/platelets together with a resin binder, linker, or     adhesive. Instead, GO sheets (molecules) from the GO dispersion or     the GF sheets from the GF dispersion are merged through joining or     forming of covalent bonds with one another, into an integrated     graphene entity, without using any externally added linker or binder     molecules or polymers. For a lithium battery featuring such an anode     layer, there is no need to have non-active materials, such as a     resin binder or a conductive additive, which are incapable of     storing lithium. This implies a reduced amount of non-active     materials or increased amount of active materials in the anode,     effectively increasing the specific capacity per total anode weight,     mAh/g (of composite). -   (3) The graphene foam walls are typically a poly-crystal composed of     large grains having incomplete grain boundaries. This entity is     derived from a GO or GF suspension, which is in turn obtained from     natural graphite or artificial graphite particles originally having     multiple graphite crystallites. Prior to being chemically oxidized     or fluorinated, these starting graphite crystallites have an initial     length (L_(a) in the crystallographic a-axis direction), initial     width (L_(b) in the b-axis direction), and thickness (L_(c) in the     c-axis direction). Upon oxidation or fluorination, these initially     discrete graphite particles are chemically transformed into highly     aromatic graphene oxide or graphene fluoride molecules having a     significant concentration of edge- or surface-borne functional     groups (e.g. —F, —OH, —COOH, etc.). These aromatic GO or GF     molecules in the suspension have lost their original identity of     being part of a graphite particle or flake. Upon removal of the     liquid component from the suspension, the resulting GO or GF     molecules form an essentially amorphous structure. Upon heat     treatments, these GO or GF molecules are chemically merged and     linked into a unitary or monolithic graphene entity that constitutes     the foam wall. This foam wall is highly ordered.

The resulting unitary graphene entity in the foam wall typically has a length or width significantly greater than the L_(a) and L_(b) of the original crystallites. The length/width of this graphene foam wall entity is significantly greater than the L_(a) and L_(b) of the original crystallites. Even the individual grains in a poly-crystalline graphene wall structure have a length or width significantly greater than the L_(a) and L_(b) of the original crystallites.

-   (4) The large length and width of the graphene planes enable the     foam walls to be of high mechanical strength and elasticity. In     comparative experiments, we observe that without this feature (i.e.     no chemical merging of graphene planes), conventionally made     graphene foams composed of aggregates of discrete graphene sheets,     are very weak, fragile, and non-elastic (deformation not     reversible); foam walls being easily collapsed or broken. -   (5) Due to these unique chemical composition (including oxygen or     fluorine content), morphology, crystal structure (including     inter-graphene spacing), and structural features (e.g. high degree     of orientations, few defects, incomplete grain boundaries, chemical     bonding and no gap between graphene sheets, and substantially no     interruptions in graphene planes), the GO- or GF-derived graphene     foam has a unique combination of outstanding thermal conductivity,     electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, and stiffness (elastic     modulus).

The aforementioned features are further described and explained in detail as follows: As illustrated in FIG. 2(B), a graphite particle (e.g. 100) is typically composed of multiple graphite crystallites or grains. A graphite crystallite is made up of layer planes of hexagonal networks of carbon atoms. These layer planes of hexagonally arranged carbon atoms are substantially flat and are oriented or ordered so as to be substantially parallel and equidistant to one another in a particular crystallite. These layers of hexagonal-structured carbon atoms, commonly referred to as graphene layers or basal planes, are weakly bonded together in their thickness direction (crystallographic c-axis direction) by weak van der Waals forces and groups of these graphene layers are arranged in crystallites. The graphite crystallite structure is usually characterized in terms of two axes or directions: the c-axis direction and the a-axis (or b-axis) direction. The c-axis is the direction perpendicular to the basal planes. The a- or b-axes are the directions parallel to the basal planes (perpendicular to the c-axis direction).

A highly ordered graphite particle can consist of crystallites of a considerable size, having a length of L_(a) along the crystallographic a-axis direction, a width of L_(b) along the crystallographic b-axis direction, and a thickness L_(c) along the crystallographic c-axis direction. The constituent graphene planes of a crystallite are highly aligned or oriented with respect to each other and, hence, these anisotropic structures give rise to many properties that are highly directional. For instance, the thermal and electrical conductivity of a crystallite are of great magnitude along the plane directions (a- or b-axis directions), but relatively low in the perpendicular direction (c-axis). As illustrated in the upper-left portion of FIG. 2(B), different crystallites in a graphite particle are typically oriented in different directions and, hence, a particular property of a multi-crystallite graphite particle is the directional average value of all the constituent crystallites.

Due to the weak van der Waals forces holding the parallel graphene layers, natural graphite can be treated so that the spacing between the graphene layers can be appreciably opened up so as to provide a marked expansion in the c-axis direction, and thus form an expanded graphite structure in which the laminar character of the carbon layers is substantially retained. The process for manufacturing flexible graphite is well-known in the art. In general, flakes of natural graphite (e.g. 100 in FIG. 2(B)) are intercalated in an acid solution to produce graphite intercalation compounds (GICs, 102). The GICs are washed, dried, and then exfoliated by exposure to a high temperature for a short period of time. This causes the flakes to expand or exfoliate in the c-axis direction of the graphite up to 80-300 times of their original dimensions. The exfoliated graphite flakes are vermiform in appearance and, hence, are commonly referred to as worms 104. These worms of graphite flakes which have been greatly expanded can be formed without the use of a binder into cohesive or integrated sheets of expanded graphite, e.g. webs, papers, strips, tapes, foils, mats or the like (typically referred to as “flexible graphite” 106) having a typical density of about 0.04-2.0 g/cm³ for most applications.

The upper left portion of FIG. 2(A) shows a flow chart that illustrates the prior art processes used to fabricate flexible graphite foils. The processes typically begin with intercalating graphite particles 20 (e.g., natural graphite or synthetic graphite) with an intercalant (typically a strong acid or acid mixture) to obtain a graphite intercalation compound 22 (GIC). After rinsing in water to remove excess acid, the GIC becomes “expandable graphite.” The GIC or expandable graphite is then exposed to a high temperature environment (e.g., in a tube furnace preset at a temperature in the range of 800-1,050° C.) for a short duration of time (typically from 15 seconds to 2 minutes). This thermal treatment allows the graphite to expand in its c-axis direction by a factor of 30 to several hundreds to obtain a worm-like vermicular structure 24 (graphite worm), which contains exfoliated, but un-separated graphite flakes with large pores interposed between these interconnected flakes.

In one prior art process, the exfoliated graphite (or mass of graphite worms) is re-compressed by using a calendaring or roll-pressing technique to obtain flexible graphite foils (26 in FIG. 2(A) or 106 in FIG. 2(B)), which are typically 100-300 μm thick. In another prior art process, the exfoliated graphite worm 24 may be impregnated with a resin and then compressed and cured to form a flexible graphite composite, which is normally of low strength as well. In addition, upon resin impregnation, the electrical and thermal conductivity of the graphite worms could be reduced by two orders of magnitude.

Alternatively, the exfoliated graphite may be subjected to high-intensity mechanical shearing/separation treatments using a high-intensity air jet mill, high-intensity ball mill, or ultrasonic device to produce separated nano graphene platelets 33 (NGPs) with all the graphene platelets thinner than 100 nm, mostly thinner than 10 nm, and, in many cases, being single-layer graphene (also illustrated as 112 in FIG. 2(B)). An NGP is composed of a graphene sheet or a plurality of graphene sheets with each sheet being a two-dimensional, hexagonal structure of carbon atoms. A mass of multiple NGPs (including discrete sheets/platelets of single-layer and/or few-layer graphene or graphene oxide, 33 in FIG. 2(A)) may be made into a graphene film/paper (34 in FIG. 2(A) or 114 in FIG. 2(B)) using a film- or paper-making process.

Further alternatively, with a low-intensity shearing, graphite worms tend to be separated into the so-called expanded graphite flakes (108 in FIG. 2(B) having a thickness >100 nm. These flakes can be formed into graphite paper or mat 106 using a paper- or mat-making process. This expanded graphite paper or mat 106 is just a simple aggregate or stack of discrete flakes having defects, interruptions, and mis-orientations between these discrete flakes.

The following examples are used to illustrate some specific details about the best modes of practicing the instant invention and should not be construed as limiting the scope of the invention. For instance, we only described the procedures use to produce graphene foam-protected Si, VO₂, Sn, SnO₂, and Co₃O₄ particles. But, any anode active material that can be made into fine particles (<20 μm in size) can be similarly incorporated into a graphene suspension and made into graphene foam-protected anode layer in a similar manner.

Example 1: Various Blowing Agents and Pore-Forming (Bubble-Producing) Processes

In the field of plastic processing, chemical blowing agents are mixed into the plastic pellets in the form of powder or pellets and dissolved at higher temperatures. Above a certain temperature specific for blowing agent dissolution, a gaseous reaction product (usually nitrogen or CO₂) is generated, which acts as a blowing agent. However, a chemical blowing agent cannot be dissolved in a graphene material, which is a solid, not liquid. This presents a challenge to make use of a chemical blowing agent to generate pores or cells in a graphene material.

After extensive experimenting, we have discovered that practically any chemical blowing agent (e.g. in a powder or pellet form) can be used to create pores or bubbles in a dried layer of graphene when the first heat treatment temperature is sufficient to activate the blowing reaction. The chemical blowing agent (powder or pellets) may be dispersed in the liquid medium to become a second dispersed phase (sheets of graphene material being the first dispersed phase) in the suspension, which can be deposited onto the solid supporting substrate to form a wet layer. This wet layer of graphene material may then be dried and heat treated to activate the chemical blowing agent. After a chemical blowing agent is activated and bubbles are generated, the resulting foamed graphene structure is largely maintained even when subsequently a higher heat treatment temperature is applied to the structure. This is quite unexpected, indeed.

Chemical foaming agents (CFAs) can be organic or inorganic compounds that release gasses upon thermal decomposition. CFAs are typically used to obtain medium- to high-density foams, and are often used in conjunction with physical blowing agents to obtain low-density foams. CFAs can be categorized as either endothermic or exothermic, which refers to the type of decomposition they undergo. Endothermic types absorb energy and typically release carbon dioxide and moisture upon decomposition, while the exothermic types release energy and usually generate nitrogen when decomposed. The overall gas yield and pressure of gas released by exothermic foaming agents is often higher than that of endothermic types. Endothermic CFAs are generally known to decompose in the range of 130 to 230° C. (266-446° F.), while some of the more common exothermic foaming agents decompose around 200° C. (392° F.). However, the decomposition range of most exothermic CFAs can be reduced by addition of certain compounds. The activation (decomposition) temperatures of CFAs fall into the range of our heat treatment temperatures. Examples of suitable chemical blowing agents include sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), hydrazine, hydrazide, azodicarbonamide (exothermic chemical blowing agents), nitroso compounds (e.g. N, N-Dinitroso pentamethylene tetramine), hydrazine derivatives (e.g. 4.4′-Oxybis (benzenesulfonyl hydrazide) and Hydrazo dicarbonamide), and hydrogen carbonate (e.g. Sodium hydrogen carbonate). These are all commercially available in plastics industry.

In the production of foamed plastics, physical blowing agents are metered into the plastic melt during foam extrusion or injection molded foaming, or supplied to one of the precursor materials during polyurethane foaming. It has not been previously known that a physical blowing agent can be used to create pores in a graphene material, which is in a solid state (not melt). We have surprisingly observed that a physical blowing agent (e.g. CO₂ or N₂) can be injected into the stream of graphene suspension prior to being coated or cast onto the supporting substrate. This would result in a foamed structure even when the liquid medium (e.g. water and/or alcohol) is removed. The dried layer of graphene material is capable of maintaining a controlled amount of pores or bubbles during liquid removal and subsequent heat treatments.

Technically feasible blowing agents include Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Nitrogen (N₂), Isobutane (C₄H₁₀), Cyclopentane (C₅H₁₀), Isopentane (C₅H₁₂), CFC-11 (CFCI₃), HCFC-22 (CHF₂CI), HCFC-142b (CF₂CICH₃), and HCFC-134a (CH₂FCF₃). However, in selecting a blowing agent, environmental safety is a major factor to consider. The Montreal Protocol and its influence on consequential agreements pose a great challenge for the producers of foam. Despite the effective properties and easy handling of the formerly applied chlorofluorocarbons, there was a worldwide agreement to ban these because of their ozone depletion potential (ODP). Partially halogenated chlorofluorocarbons are also not environmentally safe and therefore already forbidden in many countries. The alternatives are hydrocarbons, such as isobutane and pentane, and the gases such as CO₂ and nitrogen.

Except for those regulated substances, all the blowing agents recited above have been tested in our experiments. For both physical blowing agents and chemical blowing agents, the blowing agent amount introduced into the suspension is defined as a blowing agent-to-graphene material weight ratio, which is typically from 0/1.0 to 1.0/1.0.

Example 2: Preparation of Discrete Nano Graphene Platelets (NGPs) which are GO Sheets

Chopped graphite fibers with an average diameter of 12 μm and natural graphite particles were separately used as a starting material, which was immersed in a mixture of concentrated sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and potassium permanganate (as the chemical intercalate and oxidizer) to prepare graphite intercalation compounds (GICs). The starting material was first dried in a vacuum oven for 24 h at 80° C. Then, a mixture of concentrated sulfuric acid, fuming nitric acid, and potassium permanganate (at a weight ratio of 4:1:0.05) was slowly added, under appropriate cooling and stirring, to a three-neck flask containing fiber segments. After 5-16 hours of reaction, the acid-treated graphite fibers or natural graphite particles were filtered and washed thoroughly with deionized water until the pH level of the solution reached 6. After being dried at 100° C. overnight, the resulting graphite intercalation compound (GIC) or graphite oxide fiber was re-dispersed in water and/or alcohol to form a slurry.

In one sample, five grams of the graphite oxide fibers were mixed with 2,000 ml alcohol solution consisting of alcohol and distilled water with a ratio of 15:85 to obtain a slurry mass. Then, the mixture slurry was subjected to ultrasonic irradiation with a power of 200 W for various lengths of time. After 20 minutes of sonication, GO fibers were effectively exfoliated and separated into thin graphene oxide sheets with oxygen content of approximately 23%-31% by weight. The resulting suspension contains GO sheets being suspended in water. A chemical blowing agent (hydrazo dicarbonamide) was added to the suspension just prior to casting.

The resulting suspension was then cast onto a glass surface using a doctor's blade to exert shear stresses, inducing GO sheet orientations. The resulting GO coating films, after removal of liquid, have a thickness that can be varied from approximately 5 to 500 μm (preferably and typically from 10 μM to 50 μm).

For making a graphene foam specimen, the GO coating film was then subjected to heat treatments that typically involve an initial thermal reduction temperature of 80-350° C. for 1-8 hours, followed by heat-treating at a second temperature of 1,500-2,850° C. for 0.5 to 5 hours. It may be noted that we have found it essential to apply a compressive stress to the coating film sample while being subjected to the first heat treatment. This compress stress seems to have helped maintain good contacts between the graphene sheets so that chemical merging and linking between graphene sheets can occur while pores are being formed. Without such a compressive stress, the heat-treated film is typically excessively porous with constituent graphene sheets in the pore walls being very poorly oriented and incapable of chemical merging and linking with one another. As a result, the thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, and mechanical strength of the graphene foam are severely compromised.

Example 3: Preparation of Single-Layer Graphene Sheets from Meso-Carbon Micro-Beads (MCMBs)

Meso-carbon microbeads (MCMBs) were supplied from China Steel Chemical Co., Kaohsiung, Taiwan. This material has a density of about 2.24 g/cm³ with a median particle size of about 16 μm. MCMB (10 grams) were intercalated with an acid solution (sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and potassium permanganate at a ratio of 4:1:0.05) for 48-96 hours. Upon completion of the reaction, the mixture was poured into deionized water and filtered. The intercalated MCMBs were repeatedly washed in a 5% solution of HCl to remove most of the sulphate ions. The sample was then washed repeatedly with deionized water until the pH of the filtrate was no less than 4.5. The slurry was then subjected ultrasonication for 10-100 minutes to produce GO suspensions. TEM and atomic force microscopic studies indicate that most of the GO sheets were single-layer graphene when the oxidation treatment exceeded 72 hours, and 2- or 3-layer graphene when the oxidation time was from 48 to 72 hours.

The GO sheets contain oxygen proportion of approximately 35%-47% by weight for oxidation treatment times of 48-96 hours. GO sheets were suspended in water. Baking soda (5-20% by weight), as a chemical blowing agent, was added to the suspension just prior to casting. The suspension was then cast onto a glass surface using a doctor's blade to exert shear stresses, inducing GO sheet orientations. Several samples were cast, some containing a blowing agent and some not. The resulting GO films, after removal of liquid, have a thickness that can be varied from approximately 10 to 500 μm.

The several sheets of the GO film, with or without a blowing agent, were then subjected to heat treatments that involve an initial (first) thermal reduction temperature of 80-500° C. for 1-5 hours. This first heat treatment generated a graphene foam. However, the graphene domains in the foam wall can be further perfected (re-graphitized to become more ordered or having a higher degree of crystallinity and larger lateral dimensions of graphene planes, longer than the original graphene sheet dimensions due to chemical merging) if the foam is followed by heat-treating at a second temperature of 1,500-2,850° C.

Example 4: Preparation of Pristine Graphene Foam (0% Oxygen)

Recognizing the possibility of the high defect population in GO sheets acting to reduce the conductivity of individual graphene plane, we decided to study if the use of pristine graphene sheets (non-oxidized and oxygen-free, non-halogenated and halogen-free, etc.) can lead to a graphene foam having a higher thermal conductivity. Pristine graphene sheets were produced by using the direct ultrasonication or liquid-phase production process.

In a typical procedure, five grams of graphite flakes, ground to approximately 20 μm or less in sizes, were dispersed in 1,000 mL of deionized water (containing 0.1% by weight of a dispersing agent, Zonyl FSO from DuPont) to obtain a suspension. An ultrasonic energy level of 85 W (Branson S450 Ultrasonicator) was used for exfoliation, separation, and size reduction of graphene sheets for a period of 15 minutes to 2 hours. The resulting graphene sheets are pristine graphene that have never been oxidized and are oxygen-free and relatively defect-free. There are no other non-carbon elements.

Various amounts (1%-30% by weight relative to graphene material) of chemical bowing agents (N, N-Dinitroso pentamethylene tetramine or 4.4′-Oxybis (benzenesulfonyl hydrazide) were added to a suspension containing pristine graphene sheets and a surfactant. The suspension was then cast onto a glass surface using a doctor's blade to exert shear stresses, inducing graphene sheet orientations. Several samples were cast, including one that was made using CO₂ as a physical blowing agent introduced into the suspension just prior to casting). The resulting graphene films, after removal of liquid, have a thickness that can be varied from approximately 10 to 100 μM.

The graphene films were then subjected to heat treatments that involve an initial (first) thermal reduction temperature of 80-1,500° C. for 1-5 hours. This first heat treatment led to the production of a graphene foam. Some of the pristine foam samples were then subjected to a second temperature of 1,500-2,850° C. to determine if the graphene domains in the foam wall could be further perfected (re-graphitized to become more ordered or having a higher degree of crystallinity).

Example 4-a and Comparative Example 4-5: Pristine Graphene Foam-Protected Anode Vs. Prior Art Pristine Graphene Paper/Film-Protected Anode

Separately, a graphene film containing 65% by weight of Si particles (plus 5% by weight of the chemical blowing agent) was cast and heat treated up to 1,500° C. to obtain a layer of graphene foam protected anode active material. For comparison purpose, a graphene film (paper) containing 65% by weight of Si particles (without any blowing agent) was cast and heat treated up to 1,500° C. to obtain a layer of graphene protected anode active material. The anode specific capacity of these two anode layers was then evaluated using a lithium metal as the counter-electrode in a half-cell configuration. The specific capacity values of a lithium battery having a pristine graphene foam-protected Si and those of a pristine graphene-Si mixture as an electrode material are plotted as a function of the number of charge-discharge cycles. These results clearly demonstrate that the presently invented graphene foam having small pores, along with those pores occupied by Si particles (or Si particles protected by the wrapped around graphene sheets), provide a lithium battery with more stable cycling stability, exhibiting only a 7.0% reduction in lithium storage capacity (from 2450 to 2279 mAh/g based on total anode composite weight) after 1,000 cycles. In contrast, the graphene film-protected Si anode exhibits a 24.9% capacity fade (from 2,448 to 1846 mAh/g).

Comparative Example 3/4-b: CVD Graphene Foams on Ni Foam Templates

The procedure was adapted from that disclosed in open literature: Chen, Z. et al. “Three-dimensional flexible and conductive interconnected graphene networks grown by chemical vapor deposition,” Nat. Mater. 10, 424-428 (2011). Nickel foam, a porous structure with an interconnected 3D scaffold of nickel was chosen as a template for the growth of graphene foam. Briefly, carbon was introduced into a nickel foam by decomposing CH₄ at 1,000° C. under ambient pressure, and graphene films were then deposited on the surface of the nickel foam. Due to the difference in the thermal expansion coefficients between nickel and graphene, ripples and wrinkles were formed on the graphene films. In order to recover (separate) graphene foam, Ni frame must be etched away. Before etching away the nickel skeleton by a hot HCl (or FeCl₃) solution, a thin layer of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) was deposited on the surface of the graphene films as a support to prevent the graphene network from collapsing during nickel etching. After the PMMA layer was carefully removed by hot acetone, a fragile graphene foam sample was obtained. The use of the PMMA support layer is critical to preparing a free-standing film of graphene foam; only a severely distorted and deformed graphene foam sample was obtained without the PMMA support layer. This is a tedious process that is not environmentally benign and is not scalable.

Comparative Example 3/4-c: Conventional Graphitic Foam from Pitch-Based Carbon Foams

Pitch powder, granules, or pellets are placed in a aluminum mold with the desired final shape of the foam. Mitsubishi ARA-24 meso-phase pitch was utilized. The sample is evacuated to less than 1 torr and then heated to a temperature approximately 300° C. At this point, the vacuum was released to a nitrogen blanket and then a pressure of up to 1,000 psi was applied. The temperature of the system was then raised to 800° C. This was performed at a rate of 2 degree C./min. The temperature was held for at least 15 minutes to achieve a soak and then the furnace power was turned off and cooled to room temperature at a rate of approximately 1.5 degree C./min with release of pressure at a rate of approximately 2 psi/min. Final foam temperatures were 630° C. and 800° C. During the cooling cycle, pressure is released gradually to atmospheric conditions. The foam was then heat treated to 1050° C. (carbonized) under a nitrogen blanket and then heat treated in separate runs in a graphite crucible to 2500° C. and 2800° C. (graphitized) in Argon.

Samples from this conventional graphitic foam were machined into specimens for measuring the thermal conductivity. The bulk thermal conductivity of the graphitic foam was found to be in the range from 67 W/mK to 151 W/mK. The density of the samples was from 0.31 to 0.61 g/cm³. When the material porosity level is taken into account, the specific thermal conductivity of the meso-phase pitch derived foam is approximately 67/0.31=216 and 151/0.61=247.5 W/mK per specific gravity (or per physical density). In contrast, the specific thermal conductivity of the presently invented foam is typically >>250 W/mK per specific gravity.

The compression strength of the conventional graphitic foam samples having an average density of 0.51 g/cm³ was measured to be 3.6 MPa and the compression modulus was measured to be 74 MPa. By contrast, the compression strength and compressive modulus of the presently invented graphene foam samples derived from GO having a comparable physical density are 5.7 MPa and 103 MPa, respectively.

Shown in FIG. 5(A) and FIG. 6(A) are the thermal conductivity values vs. specific gravity of the GO suspension-derived foam (Example 3), meso-phase pitch-derived graphite foam (Comparative Example 3/4-b), and Ni foam template-assisted CVD graphene foam (Comparative Example 3/4-c). These data clearly demonstrate the following unexpected results:

-   -   1) GO-derived graphene foams produced by the presently invented         process exhibit significantly higher thermal conductivity as         compared to both meso-phase pitch-derived graphite foam and Ni         foam template-assisted CVD graphene, given the same physical         density.     -   2) This is quite surprising in view of the notion that CVD         graphene is essentially pristine graphene that has never been         exposed to oxidation and should have exhibited a much higher         thermal conductivity compared to graphene oxide (GO). GO is         known to be highly defective (having a high defect population         and, hence, low conductivity) even after the oxygen-containing         functional groups are removed via conventional thermal or         chemical reduction methods. These exceptionally high thermal         conductivity values observed with the GO-derived graphene foams         herein produced are much to our surprise. A good thermal         dissipation capability is essential to the prevention of thermal         run-away and explosion, a most serious problem associated with         rechargeable lithium-ion batteries.     -   3) FIG. 6(A) presents the thermal conductivity values over         comparable ranges of specific gravity values to allow for         calculation of specific conductivity (conductivity value, W/mK,         divided by physical density value, g/cm³) for all three         graphitic foam materials based on the slopes of the curves         (approximately straight lines at different segments). These         specific conductivity values enable a fair comparison of thermal         conductivity values of these three types of graphitic foams         given the same amount of solid graphitic material in each foam.         These data provide an index of the intrinsic conductivity of the         solid portion of the foam material. These data clearly indicate         that, given the same amount of solid material, the presently         invented GO-derived foam is intrinsically most conducting,         reflecting a high level of graphitic crystal perfection (larger         crystal dimensions, fewer grain boundaries and other defects,         better crystal orientation, etc.). This is also unexpected.     -   4) The specific conductivity values of the presently invented         GO- and GF-derived foam exhibit values from 250 to 500 W/mK per         unit of specific gravity; but those of the other two foam         materials are typically lower than 250 W/mK per unit of specific         gravity.

Summarized in FIG. 8 are thermal conductivity data for a series of GO-derived graphene foams and a series of pristine graphene derived foams, both plotted over the final (maximum) heat treatment temperatures. These data indicate that the thermal conductivity of the GO foams is highly sensitive to the final heat treatment temperature (HTT). Even when the HTT is very low, clearly some type of graphene merging or crystal perfection reactions are already activated. The thermal conductivity increases monotonically with the final HTT. In contrast, the thermal conductivity of pristine graphene foams remains relatively constant until a final HTT of approximately 2,500° C. is reached, signaling the beginning of a re-crystallization and perfection of graphite crystals. There are no functional groups in pristine graphene, such as —COOH in GO, that enable chemical linking of graphene sheets at relatively low HTTs. With a HTT as low as 1,250° C., GO sheets can merge to form significantly larger graphene sheets with reduced grain boundaries and other defects. Even though GO sheets are intrinsically more defective than pristine graphene, the presently invented process enables the GO sheets to form graphene foams that outperform pristine graphene foams. This is another unexpected result.

Example 5: Preparation of Graphene Oxide (GO) Suspension from Natural Graphite and Preparation of Subsequent GO Foams

Graphite oxide was prepared by oxidation of graphite flakes with an oxidizer liquid consisting of sulfuric acid, sodium nitrate, and potassium permanganate at a ratio of 4:1:0.05 at 30° C. When natural graphite flakes (particle sizes of 14 μm) were immersed and dispersed in the oxidizer mixture liquid for 48 hours, the suspension or slurry appears and remains optically opaque and dark. After 48 hours, the reacting mass was rinsed with water 3 times to adjust the pH value to at least 3.0. A final amount of water was then added to prepare a series of GO-water suspensions. We observed that GO sheets form a liquid crystal phase when GO sheets occupy a weight fraction >3% and typically from 5% to 15%.

By dispensing and coating the GO suspension on a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) film in a slurry coater and removing the liquid medium from the coated film we obtained a thin film of dried graphene oxide. Several GO film samples were then subjected to different heat treatments, which typically include a thermal reduction treatment at a first temperature of 100° C. to 500° C. for 1-10 hours, and at a second temperature of 1,500° C.-2,850° C. for 0.5-5 hours. With these heat treatments, also under a compressive stress, the GO films were transformed into graphene foam.

Summarized in FIG. 6(C) are the specific capacities of several anode layers for comparison purposes: the presently invented GO-derived graphene foam-protected Sn, Sn only (without graphene foam protection), graphene foam only, and theoretical prediction based on the rule-of-mixture law. These data demonstrate an unexpected synergistic effect between the presently invented GO-derived graphene foam and Sn anode active material itself. It may be noted that graphene itself has some lithium-storage capability. Even when this intrinsic lithium storage capacity of graphene is taken into consideration, the theoretical prediction values are always significantly lower than those of the presently invented anode layer. This is a very significant and surprising discovery.

Comparative Example 5-a: Graphene Foams from Hydrothermally Reduced Graphene Oxide

For comparison, a self-assembled graphene hydrogel (SGH) sample was prepared by a one-step hydrothermal method. In a typical procedure, the SGH can be easily prepared by heating 2 mg/mL of homogeneous graphene oxide (GO) aqueous dispersion sealed in a Teflon-lined autoclave at 180° C. for 12 h. The SGH containing about 2.6% (by weight) graphene sheets and 97.4% water has an electrical conductivity of approximately 5×10⁻³ S/cm. Upon drying and heat treating at 1,500° C., the resulting graphene foam exhibits an electrical conductivity of approximately 1.5×10⁻¹ S/cm, which is 2 times lower than those of the presently invented graphene foams produced by heat treating at the same temperature.

FIG. 6(D) shows the specific capacities of two anode layers: the presently invented GO-derived graphene foam-protected SnO₂ and hydrothermally reduced GO-derived graphene foam-protected SnO₂. Clearly, the presently invented GO-derived graphene foam is more effective in protecting SnO₂ particles possibly due to the more elastic and higher strength of the presently invented graphene foam walls as compared to the process produced by the hydrothermal reduction. This is again unexpected.

Comparative Example 5-b: Plastic Bead Template-Assisted Formation of Reduced Graphene Oxide Foams

A hard template-directed ordered assembly for a macro-porous bubbled graphene film (MGF) was prepared. Mono-disperse poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA) latex spheres were used as the hard templates. The GO liquid crystal prepared in Example 5 was mixed with a PMMA spheres suspension. Subsequent vacuum filtration was then conducted to prepare the assembly of PMMA spheres and GO sheets, with GO sheets wrapped around the PMMA beads. A composite film was peeled off from the filter, air dried and calcinated at 800° C. to remove the PMMA template and thermally reduce GO into RGO simultaneously. The grey free-standing PMMA/GO film turned black after calcination, while the graphene film remained porous.

FIG. 5(B) and FIG. 6(B) show the thermal conductivity values of the presently invented GO suspension-derived foam, GO foam produced via sacrificial plastic bead template-assisted process, and hydrothermally reduced GO graphene foam. Most surprisingly, given the same starting GO sheets, the presently invented process produces the highest-performing graphene foams. Electrical conductivity data summarized in FIG. 4(C) are also consistent with this conclusion. These data further support the notion that, given the same amount of solid material, the presently invented GO suspension deposition (with stress-induced orientation) and subsequent heat treatments give rise to a graphene foam that is intrinsically most conducting, reflecting a highest level of graphitic crystal perfection (larger crystal dimensions, fewer grain boundaries and other defects, better crystal orientation, etc. along the pore walls).

It is of significance to point out that all the prior art processes for producing graphite foams or graphene foams appear to provide macro-porous foams having a physical density in the range of approximately 0.2-0.6 g/cm³ only with pore sizes being typically too large (e.g. from 20 to 300 μm) for most of the intended applications. In contrast, the instant invention provides processes that generate graphene foams having a density that can be as low as 0.01 g/cm³ and as high as 1.7 g/cm³. The pore sizes can be varied between meso-scaled (2-50 nm) up to macro-scaled (1-500 μm) depending upon the contents of non-carbon elements and the amount/type of blowing agent used. This level of flexibility and versatility in designing various types of graphene foams is unprecedented and un-matched by any prior art process.

Example 6: Preparation of Graphene Foams from Graphene Fluoride

Several processes have been used by us to produce GF, but only one process is herein described as an example. In a typical procedure, highly exfoliated graphite (HEG) was prepared from intercalated compound C₂F.xClF₃. HEG was further fluorinated by vapors of chlorine trifluoride to yield fluorinated highly exfoliated graphite (FHEG). Pre-cooled Teflon reactor was filled with 20-30 mL of liquid pre-cooled ClF₃, the reactor was closed and cooled to liquid nitrogen temperature. Then, no more than 1 g of HEG was put in a container with holes for ClF₃ gas to access and situated inside the reactor. In 7-10 days a gray-beige product with approximate formula C₂F was formed.

Subsequently, a small amount of FHEG (approximately 0.5 mg) was mixed with 20-30 mL of an organic solvent (methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, 1-butanol, tert-butanol, isoamyl alcohol) and subjected to an ultrasound treatment (280 W) for 30 min, leading to the formation of homogeneous yellowish dispersions. Five minutes of sonication was enough to obtain a relatively homogenous dispersion, but longer sonication times ensured better stability. Upon casting on a glass surface with the solvent removed, the dispersion became a brownish film formed on the glass surface. When GF films were heat-treated, fluorine was released as gases that helped to generate pores in the film. In some samples, a physical blowing agent (N₂ gas) was injected into the wet GF film while being cast. These samples exhibit much higher pore volumes or lower foam densities. Without using a blowing agent, the resulting graphene fluoride foams exhibit physical densities from 0.35 to 1.38 g/cm³. When a blowing agent was used (blowing agent/GF weight ratio from 0.5/1 to 0.05/1), a density from 0.02 to 0.35 g/cm³ was obtained. Typical fluorine contents are from 0.001% (HTT=2,500° C.) to 4.7% (HTT=350° C.), depending upon the final heat treatment temperature involved.

FIG. 6 presents a comparison in thermal conductivity values of the graphene foam samples derived from GO and GF (graphene fluoride), respectively, as a function of the specific gravity. It appears that the GF foams, in comparison with GO foams, exhibit higher thermal conductivity values at comparable specific gravity values. Both deliver impressive heat-conducting capabilities, being the best among all known foamed materials.

Example 7: Preparation of Graphene Foams from Nitrogenataed Graphene

Graphene oxide (GO), synthesized in Example 2, was finely ground with different proportions of urea and the pelletized mixture heated in a microwave reactor (900 W) for 30 s. The product was washed several times with deionized water and vacuum dried. In this method graphene oxide gets simultaneously reduced and doped with nitrogen. The products obtained with graphene:urea mass ratios of 1:0.5, 1:1 and 1:2 are designated as NGO-1, NGO-2 and NGO-3 respectively and the nitrogen contents of these samples were 14.7, 18.2 and 17.5 wt % respectively as found by elemental analysis. These nitrogenataed graphene sheets remain dispersible in water. The resulting suspensions were then cast, dried, and heat-treated initially at 200-350° C. as a first heat treatment temperature and subsequently treated at a second temperature of 1,500° C. The resulting nitrogenated graphene foams exhibit physical densities from 0.45 to 1.28 g/cm³. Typical nitrogen contents of the foams are from 0.01% (HTT=1,500° C.) to 5.3% (HTT=350° C.), depending upon the final heat treatment temperature involved.

Example 8: Characterization of Various Graphene Foams and Conventional Graphite Foam

The internal structures (crystal structure and orientation) of several dried GO layers, and the heat-treated films at different stages of heat treatments were investigated using X-ray diffraction. The X-ray diffraction curve of natural graphite typically exhibits a peak at approximately 20=26°, corresponds to an inter-graphene spacing (d₀₀₂) of approximately 0.3345 nm. Upon oxidation, the resulting GO shows an X-ray diffraction peak at approximately 20=12°, which corresponds to an inter-graphene spacing (d₀₀₂) of approximately 0.7 nm. With some heat treatment at 150° C., the dried GO compact exhibits the formation of a hump centered at 22°, indicating that it has begun the process of decreasing the inter-graphene spacing due to the beginning of chemical linking and ordering processes. With a heat treatment temperature of 2,500° C. for one hour, the d₀₀₂ spacing has decreased to approximately 0.336, close to 0.3354 nm of a graphite single crystal.

With a heat treatment temperature of 2,750° C. for one hour, the d₀₀₂ spacing is decreased to approximately to 0.3354 nm, identical to that of a graphite single crystal. In addition, a second diffraction peak with a high intensity appears at 2θ=55° corresponding to X-ray diffraction from (004) plane. The (004) peak intensity relative to the (002) intensity on the same diffraction curve, or the I(004)/I(002) ratio, is a good indication of the degree of crystal perfection and preferred orientation of graphene planes. The (004) peak is either non-existing or relatively weak, with the I(004)/I(002) ratio <0.1, for all graphitic materials heat treated at a temperature lower than 2,800° C. The I(004)/I(002) ratio for the graphitic materials heat treated at 3,000-3,250° C. (e,g, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, HOPG) is in the range of 0.2-0.5. In contrast, a graphene foam prepared with a final HTT of 2,750° C. for one hour exhibits a I(004)/I(002) ratio of 0.78 and a Mosaic spread value of 0.21, indicating a practically perfect graphene single crystal with a good degree of preferred orientation.

The “mosaic spread” value is obtained from the full width at half maximum of the (002) reflection in an X-ray diffraction intensity curve. This index for the degree of ordering characterizes the graphite or graphene crystal size (or grain size), amounts of grain boundaries and other defects, and the degree of preferred grain orientation. A nearly perfect single crystal of graphite is characterized by having a mosaic spread value of 0.2-0.4. Some of our graphene foams have a mosaic spread value in this range of 0.2-0.4 when produced using a final heat treatment temperature no less than 2,500° C.

The inter-graphene spacing values of both the GO suspension-derived samples obtained by heat treating at various temperatures over a wide temperature range are summarized in FIG. 9(A). Corresponding oxygen content values in the GO suspension-derived unitary graphene layer are shown in FIG. 9(B).

It is of significance to point out that a heat treatment temperature as low as 500° C. is sufficient to bring the average inter-graphene spacing in GO sheets along the pore walls to below 0.4 nm, getting closer and closer to that of natural graphite or that of a graphite single crystal. The beauty of this approach is the notion that this GO suspension strategy has enabled us to re-organize, re-orient, and chemically merge the planar graphene oxide molecules from originally different graphite particles or graphene sheets into a unified structure with all the graphene planes now being larger in lateral dimensions (significantly larger than the length and width of the graphene planes in the original graphite particles). A potential chemical linking mechanism is illustrated in FIG. 4. This has given rise to exceptional thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity values.

Example 9: Cycle Stability of Various Rechargeable Lithium Battery Cells

In lithium-ion battery industry, it is a common practice to define the cycle life of a battery as the number of charge-discharge cycles that the battery suffers 20% decay in capacity based on the initial capacity measured after the required electrochemical formation. Summarized in Table 1 below are the cycle life data of a broad array of batteries featuring a presently invented graphene foam-protected anode layer vs. other types of anode materials.

TABLE 1 Cycle life data of various lithium secondary (rechargeable) batteries (ρ = physical density). Protective material (type of graphene Type & Initial Cycle life foam or conductive % of anode capacity (No. of Sample ID additive/binder) active material (mAh/g) cycles) Comments Si-GO-3 GO foam (HTT = 25% by wt. Si nano 1,250 755-1,275 Longest life 1,510° C.; ρ = 0.32- particles (80 nm) when ρ = 1.68 g/cm³) 0.6-1.5 g/cm³ Si-comp 67% graphite + 8% 25% by wt. Si nano 1,242 454 No graphene binder particles (80 nm) Si-GF-4 Graphene fluoride 35% Si nanowires 1,388 745 Cycle life foam (HTT = (diameter = 90 nm) (with empty 347 (without 2520° C.) p = 0.7 small particle-free g/cm³ pores) pores) Si-NG-5 Nitrogenated 45% Si nano 1,852 1,420 p = 0.87 graphene foam particles, prelithiated (pre); g/cm³ or non-prelithiated 677 (non-pre) VO₂-G-6 Pristine graphene 90%-95%, VO₂ 240-280 1677 foam nano ribbon Co₃O₄-BG- B-doped or non- 85% Co₃O₄ 720 832 7 doped graphene (B-doped); foam 576 (no B) SnO₂-8 RGO foam; 75% SnO₂ particles 770 788 165 cycles; compressed at (3 μm initial size) no 2,500° C. compression

These data further confirms:

-   -   (1) The graphene foam is very effective in alleviating the anode         expansion/shrinkage problems.     -   (2) Graphene foam containing pores that are not occupied by         anode active material particles (particle-free pores) are         significantly more effective in enhancing the cycle stability of         a lithium battery.     -   (3) Boron-doped graphene is more effective than non-doped         graphene as an anode protector.     -   (4) The issue of larger anode particles (μm size) having a         higher tendency to get pulverized can be addressed by heating         and compressing the graphene-wrapped anode particles in such a         manner that the anode material gets melted and the liquid-like         anode material permeates into minute pores to form a tree-like         anode material structure with largely nanometer-scaled branches.         These nano-structured anode active materials protected by         graphene foam surprisingly provide the battery with a much         longer cycle life.

In conclusion, we have successfully developed an absolutely new, novel, unexpected, and patently distinct class of highly conducting graphene foam-protected anode active materials and related processes of production. The chemical composition (% of oxygen, fluorine, and other non-carbon elements), structure (crystal perfection, grain size, defect population, etc), crystal orientation, morphology, process of production, and properties of this new class of graphene foam materials and their protected anode layers are fundamentally different and patently distinct from those of meso-phase pitch-derived graphite foam, CVD graphene-derived foam, anode protected by graphene foams from hydrothermal reduction of GO, anode protected by sacrificial bead template-assisted RGO foam, and solid graphene film/paper-protected anode. The presently invented foam materials provide better thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, elastic modulus, flexural strength, and anode-protecting capability as compared to any prior art foam materials or non-foam materials. 

We claim:
 1. An anode layer for a lithium battery, said anode layer comprising multiple particles of an anode active material and a solid graphene foam composed of multiple pores and pore walls, wherein said pores have a pore size from 2 nm to 10 μm, wherein said pores are interconnected to form an open-cell foam, wherein a. said pore walls contain a pristine graphene material having less than 0.01% by weight of non-carbon elements or a non-pristine graphene material having 0.01% to 5% by weight of non-carbon elements, wherein said non-pristine graphene is selected from the group consisting of graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, boron-doped graphene, nitrogen-doped graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, and combinations thereof; b. said anode active material is in an amount from 0.5% to 95% by weight based on the total weight of said solid graphene foam and said anode active material combined; and c. some of said multiple pores are lodged with said particles of the anode active material and other pores are free of particles of said anode active material, and said solid graphene foam accommodates volume expansion and shrinkage of said particles of the anode active material during a battery charge-discharge cycle to avoid expansion of said anode layer.
 2. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said solid graphene foam has a density from 0.01 to 1.7 g/cm³, a specific surface area from 50 to 2,000 m²/g, a thermal conductivity of at least 100 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, or an electrical conductivity no less than 1,000 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.
 3. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said anode active material is selected from the group consisting of: (a) silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and cadmium (Cd); (b) alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co, or Cd with other elements; (c) oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, V, or Cd, and their mixtures, composites, or lithium-containing composites; (d) salts and hydroxides of Sn; (e) lithium titanate, lithium manganate, lithium aluminate, lithium-containing titanium oxide, lithium transition metal oxide; (f) prelithiated versions thereof; (g) particles of Li, Li alloy, or surface-stabilized Li; and (h) combinations thereof.
 4. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said anode active material contains a prelithiated Si, prelithiated Ge, prelithiated Sn, prelithiated SnO_(x), prelithiated SiO_(x), prelithiated iron oxide, prelithiated VO₂, prelithiated Co₃O₄, prelithiated Ni₃O₄, or a combination thereof, wherein x=1 to
 2. 5. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said anode active material is in a form of nano particle, nano wire, nano fiber, nano tube, nano sheet, nano belt, nano ribbon, or nano coating having a thickness or diameter less than 100 nm.
 6. The anode layer of claim 1, further comprising a carbon or graphite material therein, wherein said carbon or graphite material is in electronic contact with or deposited onto said anode active material.
 7. The anode layer of claim 6, wherein said carbon or graphite material is selected from the group consisting of polymeric carbon, amorphous carbon, chemical vapor deposition carbon, coal tar pitch, petroleum pitch, meso-phase pitch, carbon black, coke, acetylene black, activated carbon, fine expanded graphite particle with a dimension smaller than 100 nm, artificial graphite particle, natural graphite particle, and combinations thereof.
 8. The anode layer of claim 5, further comprising a conductive protective coating, selected from the group consisting of a carbon material, electronically conductive polymer, conductive metal oxide, conductive metal coating, and a lithium-conducting material, which is deposited onto or wrapped around said nano particle, nano wire, nano fiber, nano tube, nano sheet, nano belt, nano ribbon, or nano coating.
 9. The anode layer of claim 8, wherein said nano particle, nano wire, nano fiber, nano tube, nano sheet, nano belt, nano ribbon, or nano coating is prelithiated.
 10. The anode layer of claim 1, further comprising a lithium-conducting coating deposited onto said anode active material.
 11. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said pore walls contain stacked graphene planes having an inter-plane spacing d₀₀₂ from 0.3354 nm to 0.36 nm as measured by X-ray diffraction.
 12. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said pore walls contain a pristine graphene and said solid graphene foam has a density from 0.5 to 1.7 g/cm³ or said pores have a pore size from 2 nm to 100 nm.
 13. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said non-pristine graphene material contains a content of non-carbon elements from 0.01% to 2.0% by weight.
 14. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said pore walls contain graphene fluoride and said solid graphene foam contains a fluorine content from 0.01% to 2.0% by weight.
 15. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said pore walls contain graphene oxide and said solid graphene foam contains an oxygen content from 0.01% to 2.0% by weight.
 16. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said solid graphene foam has a specific surface area from 200 to 2,000 m²/g or a density from 0.1 to 1.5 g/cm³.
 17. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said non-carbon elements include an element selected from the group consisting of oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, nitrogen, hydrogen, and boron.
 18. The anode layer of claim 1, which is in a continuous-length roll sheet form having a thickness no greater than 300 μm and a length of at least 2 meters and is produced by a roll-to-roll process.
 19. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said solid graphene foam has an oxygen content or non-carbon content less than 1% by weight, and said pore walls have an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.35 nm, a thermal conductivity of at least 250 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, or an electrical conductivity no less than 2,500 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.
 20. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said solid graphene foam has an oxygen content or non-carbon content less than 0.01% by weight and said pore walls contain stacked graphene planes having an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.34 nm, a thermal conductivity of at least 300 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, or an electrical conductivity no less than 3,000 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.
 21. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said solid graphene foam has an oxygen content or non-carbon content no greater than 0.01% by weight and said pore walls contain stacked graphene planes having an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.336 nm, a mosaic spread value no greater than 0.7, a thermal conductivity of at least 350 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, or an electrical conductivity no less than 3,500 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.
 22. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said solid graphene foam has pore walls containing stacked graphene planes having an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.336 nm, a mosaic spread value no greater than 0.4, a thermal conductivity greater than 400 W/mK per unit of specific gravity, or an electrical conductivity greater than 4,000 S/cm per unit of specific gravity.
 23. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein the pore walls contain stacked graphene planes having an inter-graphene spacing less than 0.337 nm and a mosaic spread value less than 1.0.
 24. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein the solid graphene foam exhibits a degree of graphitization no less than 80% or a mosaic spread value less than 0.4.
 25. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein the solid graphene foam exhibits a degree of graphitization no less than 90% or a mosaic spread value no greater than 0.4.
 26. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said pore walls contain a 3D network of interconnected graphene planes.
 27. The anode layer of claim 1, wherein said solid graphene foam contains pores having a pore size from 20 nm to 500 nm.
 28. A lithium battery containing the anode layer as defined in claim 1, a cathode or positive electrode, and an electrolyte in ionic contact with said anode layer and said cathode.
 29. The lithium battery of claim 28, further containing a cathode current collector in electronic contact with said cathode.
 30. The lithium battery of claim 28, further containing an anode current collector in electronic contact with said anode layer.
 31. The lithium battery of claim 28, wherein said solid graphene foam operates as an anode current collector to collect electrons from said anode active material during a charge of said lithium battery, and wherein said lithium battery contains no separate or additional anode current collector.
 32. The lithium battery of claim 28, which is a lithium-ion battery, lithium metal battery, lithium-sulfur battery, or lithium-air battery. 